\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article}
\usepackage{amsthm}

\newcommand{\datenow}{2005.05.02}

\title{Turkish grammar}
\author{David Pierce}
\date{\datenow}

\newcommand{\Tur}[1]{\texttt{#1}} % for words in Turkish
\newcommand{\Eng}[1]{\textsl{#1}} %for words in English
\newcommand{\tech}[1]{\textbf{#1}} % for technical terms
\newcommand{\letter}[1]{\textsf{#1}}  %for letters as such
%\newcommand{\aelig}{\ae}
\newcommand{\aesymb}{@}

\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem*{example}{Example}
\pagestyle{myheadings}
 \markboth{Turkish finite verbs, \datenow}{\datenow, David Pierce}

\begin{document}
 \maketitle\thispagestyle{empty}
 \tableofcontents
\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{Preliminaries}
\setcounter{subsection}{-1}
\subsection{Introduction}

As a student of Turkish, I make these notes in an effort to understand
the logic of the Turkish language.  This is not the account of an
expert; as should be quite clear, this is not anything like a
complete exposition of Turkish grammar.  The information here is
mostly from secondary sources: I
mainly use Lewis's \emph{Turkish Grammar} \cite{Lewis}, but have also
consulted \cite{Hengirmen}.  I have made some use of primary sources,
namely,
Turkish speech and writing as they appear in the course of my life in
Turkey.   

I shall propose some technical terms that are different from
Lewis's. 

Since my account is \emph{written,} it will use
the Turkish \tech{alphabet}; therefore my account  illustrate features
like \tech{vowel-harmony} that are reflected in spelling.

\subsection{Alphabet}

Like English, modern Turkish (since 1928) uses an alphabet derived from
the 23-letter Latin alphabet 
\begin{center}
  \letter{A}, \letter{B}, \letter{C}, \letter{D}, \letter{E}, \letter{F},
\letter{G}, \letter{H}, \letter{I}, \letter{K}, \letter{L}, \letter{M},
\letter{N}, \letter{O}, \letter{P}, \letter{Q}, \letter{R}, \letter{S},
\letter{T}, \letter{V}, \letter{X}, \letter{Y}, \letter{Z}.
\end{center}
 English gets 3
more letters by introducing: 
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  the variant \letter{J} of \letter{I}, and
  \item
  the variants \letter{U} and \letter{W} (double-\letter{U}) of \letter{V}.
\end{itemize}
The letter-forms
given above are called \tech{upper case}, to
distinguish them from the \tech{lower case} (\letter{a}, \letter{b},
\letter{c} and so on).

The 29-letter Turkish alphabet can be derived from the 26-letter
English one by:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  eliminating \letter{Q}, \letter{X} and \letter{W};
  \item
  deriving from \letter{C}, \letter{G}, \letter{O}, \letter{S} and \letter{U}
  the letters \letter{\c C}, \letter{\u G}, \letter{\"O}, \letter{\c S} and
  \letter{\"U} respectively, by adjoining cedilla, breve or umlaut;
  \item
  replacing \letter{I} with two letters, \letter{I} and \letter{\.I}
  (distinguished in both upper and lower case by whether a dot is present:
  the lower-case forms are therefore \letter{\i} and \letter{i}
  respectively).
\end{itemize}
The letter \letter{\u G} is called \Tur{yumu\c{s}ak ge} (\Eng{soft}
\letter{G}), and it never begins a word.  The letters that are `new'
with respect to the English alphabet
can be understood as derived from the old letters by means of diacritical
marks.  However, these 
marks become integral parts of the new letters.  It is not the
\emph{shape} of the mark, but its \emph{presence} at the top or bottom of
the letter that is used to distinguish the letter from its `twin'.  For
example, one Turkish dairy styles itself \Tur{S\"uta\d s} (they use a dot
instead of a cedilla under the \letter{s}), and there is a bus company
called \Tur{Uluda\`g} (taking their name from the mountain at Bursa, the
first capital of the Ottoman Empire; they use a grave accent rather than
a breve over the \letter{g}).

In the alphabetical order, \letter{I} precedes \letter{\.I}, and the
other new letters follow their `twins'.  Hence the Turkish alphabet is
\begin{center}
  \letter{A},   \letter{B},   \letter{C},    \letter{\c C}, \letter{D},
  \letter{E},   \letter{F},   \letter{G},    \letter{\u G}, \letter{H},
  \letter{I},   \letter{\.I}, \letter{J},    \letter{K},    \letter{L},\\ 
\vspace{1ex}
  \letter{M},   \letter{N},   \letter{O},    \letter{\"O},  \letter{P},
  \letter{R},   \letter{S},   \letter{\c S}, \letter{T},    \letter{U},
  \letter{\"U}, \letter{V},   \letter{Y},    \letter{Z}. 
\end{center}


Because of the distinction between the letters \letter{\i} and
\letter{i} in Turkish, neither of these should be joined in a
\tech{ligature} to a preceding \letter{f}.  In English, the other word
for a movie is \Eng{film}: the word is usually printed thus, with
\emph{three} characters, namely 
\Eng{fi}, \Eng{i} and \Eng{m}.  But \Tur{film} is also a Turkish word,
and as such is printed with four distinct letters.  (Also, for
example, \Tur{fil}
means \Eng{elephant} or \Eng{chess-bishop}, while \Tur{f\i nd\i k} means
\Eng{hazelnut}.)

In Turkey, I have seen a capital \letter{J} written with a dot.  But
 \letter{j} is rare in Turkish anyway, being used only in foreign words.

\subsection{Sounds}

The name of a \tech{vowel} is itself, and the name of a \tech{consonant}
(besides
\letter{\u G}, \Tur{yumu\c sak G}) is itself plus \letter{e}.

The number of vowels is eight, that is, $2^3$, since each vowel is
determined by the quality it possesses from each of three pairs:
\Eng{thick/thin, flat/round and narrow/wide}.  These are literal
translations of the usual Turkish terms (\Tur{kal\i n/ince,
d\"uz/yuvarlak, dar/geni\c s}), but commonly in English the terms are:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{back/front},
  \item
  \tech{unround/round},
  \item
  \tech{close/open}.
\end{itemize}
The vowels can then be tabulated:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|}
  % after \\ : \hline or \cline{col1-col2} \cline{col3-col4} ...
   \multicolumn{1}{c}{} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{open} &
   \multicolumn{2}{c}{close}  \\
   \cline{2-5}
   { }& back & front & back & front \\ \hline
   unround  & \letter a & \letter e & \letter{\i} & \letter i \\ \hline
   round    & \letter o & \letter{\"o} & \letter u & \letter{\"u} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

The sound of \Tur{a} can be spelled in English by \Eng{uh}; close the
mouth more to get \Tur{\i}.  The \Tur{\"o} and \Tur{\"u} are as in
German; their sounds are found in French as well.

Further distinctions are possible, mainly because Turkish retains
borrowings from Arabic and Persian.  A difference from the norm might be
shown by a circumflex: so \Tur{kar} means \Eng{snow}, but \Tur{k\^ar},
sounding something like \emph{kyahr}, means \Eng{profit}.

The other 21 letters are consonants.  Besides the `semi-vowel'
\letter{y}, the consonants might be tabulated:

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline
  % after \\ : \hline or \cline{col1-col2} \cline{col3-col4} ...
  \letter b/\letter p & \letter v/\letter f      &
                                           & \letter m & \\ \hline
  \letter d/\letter t & \letter j/\letter {\c s} &
                   \letter c/\letter{\c c} & \letter n & \letter l\\
                      & \letter z/\letter s      &
                                           &           &          \\ \hline
  \letter g/\letter k & \letter{\u g}/\letter h  &
                                           &           & \letter r\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
The rows here are intended to correspond to position of the lips and the
tip of the tongue; the columns, to the flow of breath used to pronounce
the consonant.  (This particular table is my own invention though, and is
not the result of careful phonological study.)  The members of the pairs
$*/*$ are \tech{voiced} and \tech{unvoiced} respectively, or \Eng{soft}
and \Eng{strong} in Turkish (\Tur{yumu\c sak} and \Tur{sert}). The main
effect of
\letter{\u g} is to lengthen the preceding vowel.  (So it functions
like \Eng{gh} in English in changing \Eng{fit} into \Eng{fight},
although the English long \letter{I} is not the same as the Turkish
long \letter{\.I}.)  The letter \letter{j}
is pronounced as in French.  The sound of \letter{c} is spelled in
English by \letter{j} or \Eng{dge}; the sounds of \letter{\c c} and
\letter{\c s}, by \Eng{ch} and \Eng{sh}.

\subsection{Writing}

As in English, written Turkish is divided into \tech{sentences}, and
these into \tech{words}.  Some words are \tech{enclitic}, being
unaccented, but causing the previous syllable to be accented.  (Syllabic
accents are not very strong in Turkish though.)  The vowel in an enclitic
may also change according to the preceding vowel. This same
\tech{vowel harmony} is shown by many \tech{suffixes}.

I shall indicate the variability of vowels with the following symbols:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \letter{\aesymb} for an open unround vowel (\letter{a} or \letter{e});
  \item
  \letter{\#} for a close vowel (\letter{\i}, \letter{i}, \letter{u} or \letter{\"u}).
\end{itemize}
I have not seen such symbols used elsewhere in this way.  (Perhaps using
\letter{\ae} instead of \letter{\aesymb} would be more logical, but its
appearance seems more confusing.)  Used in a complete word (or
sentence), each symbol resolves to a vowel that
agrees as far as possible with the preceding vowel. In particular,
after
\letter{\aesymb}, the only possibilities for
\letter{\#} are the unround vowels \letter{\i} and \letter{i}.

The variability in consonants will not be indicated.  However, when it
begins a suffix appended to a word ending in an unvoiced (that is,
strong) consonant, the letter \letter{d} is unvoiced (`strengthened') to
\letter{t}. Also, terminal
\letter{k} changes to \letter{\u g} when a suffix beginning with a vowel
is added. (These changes affect the suffix \Tur{-d\#r} and the
termination \Tur{-k} mentioned below.  Other such changes can occur,
as between \Tur{c} and \Tur{\c c}.)

\begin{example}
The question \Tur{Avrupa + l\# + l\aesymb\c s + d\#r + \aesymb m\aesymb\
+ d\#k + l\aesymb r + \#m\#z + d\aesymb n m\# + s\#n\#z?} resolves to
\Tur{Avrupal\i la\c st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i z\-dan m\i s\i n\i z?}
meaning \Eng{Are you one of those whom we could not Europeanize?}
\end{example}

The symbol \letter{\#} may resolve to zero (nothing) when it begins a
suffix placed after a vowel; alternatively, a consonant may be
interposed, \letter{n}, \letter{s} or \letter{y}, depending on the
situation.  Sometimes the \letter{y} narrows the preceding \letter{@} to
\letter{\#}.

\section{Parts of speech}
\setcounter{subsection}{-1}

\subsection{Words}

Not every word appears in a dictionary, even if the word is well-formed;
the word may be \tech{inflected} (or otherwise derived) from a
dictionary-word according to standard rules.  Otherwise, we might say
that the \emph{same} word may be used in many forms, only one or a few of
which appear in the dictionary.  For example, in English, we can say that
\Eng{man} and \Eng{men} are two words, or else that they are two forms of
the same word. Inflected forms are few in English; in Turkish they are
many.

Words in a Turkish dictionary can be assigned to some of the same
\tech{parts of speech} as
English words: \tech{noun}, \tech{pronoun}, \tech{adjective},
\tech{numeral}, \tech{verb}, \tech{adverb} and \tech{conjunction}.
Instead of prepositions,
but fulfilling some of the same functions, Turkish has
\tech{postpositions}.  Some grammatical functions are served by
\tech{particles}. 

Some Turkish words used in examples like the following are defined in
a glossary below (in \S~\ref{glossary}):

\begin{example}
The postposition \Tur{gibi} corresponds to the preposition \Eng{like}.
So, \Tur{buz gibi} means
\Eng{like ice}, that is, \Eng{ice cold}. (It is a slogan on signs in Turkey
advertising a certain American soft drink that is marketed all over
the world.) 
\end{example}

 This reversal of order in passing from the one language to the other
occurs in other ways.  A Turkish word (as in the earlier example) may
have parts which, in English, would appear as separate words in the
opposite order. As in English though, adjectives generally precede the
nouns they modify.

\subsection{Nouns}

Turkish nouns have no gender.  To a noun in the dictionary can be
added four (kinds of) suffixes, in the following order:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
The plural suffix, \Tur{-l\aesymb r}.
\item
A \tech{possessive suffix}, indicating the \tech{number} (singular or
plural) of a possessor as well as its \tech{person} (first, second or
third):
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{r | l | l | r |}
& 1st & 2d & 3d\\ \hline
singular & -(\#)m & -(\#)n & -(s)\#\\ \hline
plural   & -(\#)m\#z & -(\#)n\#z & -(l\aesymb r)\#\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
\item
A \tech{case-ending}, roughly as in Latin:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{definite-accusative}: \Tur{-(y)\#};
  \item
  \tech{genitive}: \Tur{-(n)\#n};
  \item
  \tech{dative}: \Tur{-(y)\aesymb};
  \item
  \tech{locative}: \Tur{-d\aesymb};
  \item
  \tech{ablative}: \Tur{-d\aesymb n}.
\end{itemize}
\item
A \tech{predicative} suffix, asserting the distinctions of number
and person that apply to the noun itself:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{r | l | l | l |}
& 1st & 2d & 3d\\ \hline
singular & -(y)\#m & -s\#n & -(d\#r)\\ \hline
plural   & -(y)\#z & -s\#n\#z & -(d\#r)(l\aesymb r)\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{enumerate}

Lewis refers to the possessive suffixes as \tech{personal}.  However, as
will be seen, Turkish has \emph{five} series of suffixes that indicate
the attribute called `person'.  For the particular series of suffixes
in question here, I have chosen a name that
gives more indication of their function.  (We might also refer to
these endings as
`possessive personal suffixes'.)  Note however that these endings do
not make a noun `possessive' in the English sense in which
\Eng{man's}, \Eng{my} and \Eng{mine} are possessive; they make a noun
`possessed'.  (More on this point is just below.)

Lewis refers to the predicative suffixes as \tech{type I}, since there
will also be types II, III and IV.  I chose the name I did, since
these endings turn nouns into predicates (and even complete sentences).

In the endings given above, parenthetical single letters are used or not,
depending on which is more euphonious.  (The parenthetical \letter{s},
\letter{y} and \letter{n} are used only
between vowels; the parenthetical \letter{\#} is used only between
consonants.)  The plural suffix is 
parenthetical above because it is generally not repeated:
\begin{example}
The word \Tur{evleri} can be analysed as \Tur{evler-i}
 \Eng{his/her/its houses}
or as \Tur{ev-leri} \Eng{their house}; it may also mean \Eng{their
 houses}.  (It can also be the definite-accusative of \Tur{evler}
 \Eng{houses}.)
\end{example}

The suffix \Tur{-d\#r} is said to come, as
early as the 11th century, from the aorist verb \Tur{turur} \Eng{stands}.
Its use is imprecisely summarized this way: It can be left out if
ambiguity will not result, and it can be used for emphasis (even in
persons besides the third).

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| l | r |}\hline
\Tur{Atlar} & \Eng{They are horses}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Att\i rlar} & \Eng{They are surely horses}\\ \hline
\Tur{Atlard\i r} & \Eng{They are the horses} \\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

Note then that a single sentence can be built up out of a single word:

\begin{example}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|}\hline
 \Tur{eviniz} & \Eng{your house}\\ \hline
 \Tur{evinizde} & \Eng{at your house}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Evinizdeyim} & \Eng{I am at your house}\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
If one considers \Tur{ev} as synonymous with \Tur{odalar} \Eng{rooms},
then one can contrive \Tur{Odalar\i n\i zday\i m} \Eng{I am in your
  rooms}, with all four kinds of suffix. 
\end{example}

The second-person plural can be used (as in French) for a polite
singular.

A noun without the plural suffix is not really singular, but numberless. 
A noun without a case-ending (or, a noun in the \tech{absolute} case)
can be an indefinite direct object:

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| r | r |}
\hline
\Tur{\c Siir okur} & \Eng{(S)he reads poetry}\\ \hline
\Tur{\c Siirler okur} & \Eng{(S)he reads poems}\\ \hline
\Tur{\c Siirleri okur} & \Eng{(S)he reads the poems}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

 If a \emph{numeral} (\S~\ref{numerals}) is
present, then the plural suffix is (normally) not used:

\begin{example}
\Tur{Be\c s ba\c s koyun} \Eng{five head of sheep}.
\end{example}

If one noun is genitive and is to possess another, then that other
noun takes a possessive ending.  The converse need not be the case, for
relations that are not strictly possessive:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| l | r |}\hline
\Tur{T\"urkiye'nin cumhurba\c skan\i} & \Eng{president of Turkey}\\ \hline
\Tur{T\"urkiye Cumhuriyeti} & \Eng{Republic of Turkey}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
In general though, when two nouns form a unit, then the second one has
a possessive ending; the first can be in the absolute or the genitive
case.  Except for the lack of a possessive suffix in the Turkish
sense, English is the same way: \Eng{Elm Street}, \Eng{my friend's
  street}.  (The last example but one is exceptional.  One also has
\Tur{alt\i n k\"upe} \Eng{gold earring}; but here \Tur{alt\i n},
as \Eng{gold}, can be understood as an adjective, so \Tur{k\"upe} need
not become \Tur{k\"upesi}.)

Some suffixes make new nouns from old.  Common are:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
\Tur{-c\#}, indicating \Eng{-monger}, \Eng{-dealer}, \Eng{-seller}, or more
generally a person involved with the thing;
\item
\Tur{-l\#k}, making some kind of abstraction.
\end{itemize}

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| r | r || r | r |}\hline
\Tur{s\"ut\c c\"u} & \Eng{milkman} & 
\Tur{g\" unl\" uk} &\Eng{diary} \\ \hline
\Tur{i\c s\c ci} & \Eng{worker} &
\Tur{gecelik} & \Eng{nightgown}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

\subsection{Adjectives}

Adjectives can behave as nouns, taking all of the same endings that
nouns do.  Nonetheless, they can generally be distinguished from nouns
in the manner just alluded to:  When they modify a noun, they do
not force the noun to take a possessive suffix.  

As noted earlier, adjectives do generally come
before the nouns they modify.  Some adjectives
have \tech{intensive} forms, which represent the only use of prefixes
in Turkish: 

\begin{example}
  \Tur{bembeyaz} \Eng{whiter than white}; \Tur{bombo\c s} \Eng{utterly
  void}, \Tur{\c c\i r\c c\i plak} \Eng{stark naked}. 
\end{example}

Unlike some English adjectives, Turkish adjectives do not have
comparatives and superlatives; rather, adverbs are used, as for
English adjectives of more than one syllable:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{| l | r || l | r |}\hline
\Tur{daha} & \Eng{more} & \Tur{en} & \Eng{most} \\ \hline
\Tur{az} & \Eng{less} &
\Tur{en az} & \Eng{least}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
Also, in a comparison, the noun to which the comparison is being
done is in the ablative case (and then \Tur{daha} need not be used).

The suffix \Tur{-l\#} makes a noun into an adjective indicating
possession of or connexion with the noun.

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| r | r |}\hline
\Tur{\c sekerli} & \Eng{sweet} \\ \hline
\Tur{h\i zl\i} & \Eng{swift} \\ \hline
    \Tur{Ankaral\i} & \Eng{`Ankarian'}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

Two important words can be called adjectives: \Tur{var} and \Tur{yok},
meaning \Eng{existent} and \Eng{non-existent}.  Putting one of them
after a noun is like putting \Eng{there is (no)} before a noun in
English: \Tur{Tanr\i\ yok(tur)} means \Eng{There is no god}.  Also, they
are used to assert or deny possession, since Turkish has no verb
\Eng{have}: So, \Tur{At\i m var} means \Eng{My horse
  exists}, that is, \Eng{I have a horse}.

According to Lewis, a sentence like \Tur{\c Cocu\u gun babas\i\ yok}
\Eng{The child has no father} should be understood as having the
subject \Tur{\c co\u gun} and the predicate \Tur{babas\i\ yok}.  (The
reason lies in the kind of modifiers that \Tur{babas\i} can take here.)

\subsection{Numerals}\label{numerals}

The \tech{cardinal} numbers are named according to the conventional base-ten
numeration system, with special names for single-digit multiples of
ten and for certain powers of ten as in
English (without exceptions like \Eng{eleven} and \Eng{thirteen}):
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{| c |}\hline
\Tur{s\i f\i r} \\ \hline 0 \\ \hline
  \end{tabular}

  \begin{tabular}{| c | c | c | c | c | c | c | c | c |} \hline
    \Tur{bir} & \Tur{iki} & \Tur{\"u\c c} &
    \Tur{d\"ort} & \Tur{be\c s} & \Tur{alt\i} & \Tur{yedi} &
    \Tur{sekiz} & \Tur{dokuz}\\ \hline
 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 & 5 & 6 & 7 & 8 & 9 \\ \hline\hline
\Tur{on}& \Tur{yirmi}& \Tur{otuz}& \Tur{k\i rk}& \Tur{elli}&
    \Tur{altm\i\c s}& \Tur{yetmi\c s}& \Tur{seksen}&
    \Tur{doksan}\\ \hline
 10 & 20 & 30 & 40 & 50 & 60 & 70 & 80 & 90 \\ \hline
  \end{tabular}

\begin{tabular}{| c | c | c |}\hline
\Tur{y\"uz} & \Tur{bin} & \Tur{milyon}\\ \hline
 100 & 1000 & $1\,000\,000$ \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

\begin{example}
An astronomical unit,  $149\,597\,870$ kilometres, is \Tur{y\"uz k\i
  rk dokuz milyon be\c s y\"uz doksan yedi bin sekiz y\"uz yetmi\c s
  kilometre}.
%; the number might be written as one word,  \Tur{y\"uzk\i
%  rkdokuzmilyonbe\c sy\"uzdoksanyedi\-bin\-sekizy\"uzyetmi\c s}. 
\end{example}

\tech{Ordinals} are formed from cardinals by addition of
\Tur{-(\#)nc\#}.  There are also \tech{distributive numerals}, formed
by addition of \Tur{(\c s)\aesymb r}:

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| r | l || r | l |}\hline
\Tur{birinci} & \Eng{first} & \Tur{birer} & \Eng{one each}\\ \hline
\Tur{ikinci} & \Eng{second} & \Tur{iki\c ser} & \Eng{two each}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

The word \Tur{bir} has some similarities to the English indefinite
article \Eng{a(n)}.

\subsection{Pronouns}

The personal pronouns may supplement the predicative suffixes mentioned
above:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{r | l | l | l |}
& 1st & 2d & 3d\\ \hline
singular & ben & sen & o\\ \hline
plural   & biz & siz & onlar\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
Declension is as for nouns, with some irregularities:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
the dative of \Tur{ben} is
\Tur{bana}, and of \Tur{sen}, \Tur{sana}; 
\item
the genitive of \Tur{ben} is \Tur{benim}, and of \Tur{biz}, \Tur{bizim};
\item
\Tur{o} is declined as if it were \Tur{on}.
\end{itemize}

The \Tur{o} is also a \tech{demonstrative} pronoun, like \Eng{that}.  The
other demonstratives are \Tur{bu} \Eng{this}, and
\Tur{\c su} \Eng{this} or \Eng{that} (thing pointed to); these are
declined as if they were \Tur{bun} and \Tur{\c sun}.

There are no \tech{relative} pronouns in Turkish. (However, see below on
\Tur{ki}.  Also, as in English, the interrogative pronouns can
function as relatives: 
the Turkish \Tur{Kimsin bilmiyorum} can be translated as
\Eng{I don't know [the answer to] `Who are you?'},
that is, \Eng{I don't know who you are}.)  The role of an
English relative clause is taken in Turkish by participles.
(The same can happen in English: \Eng{the man who is walking} can be
\Eng{the walking man}; for \Eng{the road where the man is
  walking}, we can try \Eng{the walked-on-by-the-man road}, but it is
unnatural.)

Interrogative pronouns are: \Tur{kim} \Eng{who}, \Tur{ne}
\Eng{what}, \Tur{hangi} \Eng{which}, and \Tur{ka\c c} \Eng{how
  many}.  The accusative and ablative of \Tur{ne} correspond to
\Eng{why}; and \Tur{ne zaman} is \Eng{when}.

Added to the demonstratives and to \Tur{ne}, the suffix
\Tur{-r\aesymb} makes nouns of place, some of whose cases have
corresponding English words, some obsolescent:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{|l|l||l|l||l|l|}\hline
\Tur{buraya} & \Eng{hither} & \Tur{oraya} & \Eng{thither} &
\Tur{nereye} & \Eng{whither?}\\ \hline
\Tur{burada} & \Eng{here} & \Tur{orada} & \Eng{there} & \Tur{nerede} &
\Eng{where?}\\ \hline
\Tur{buradan} & \Eng{hence} & \Tur{oradan} & \Eng{thence} &
\Tur{nereden} & \Eng{whence?}\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
(Likewise we have \Tur{\c suraya}, \Tur{\c surada}, \Tur{\c suradan}.)

\subsection{Adverbs}

Adjectives can function as adverbs, \emph{without} addition of a
suffix like the English \Eng{-ly}, but sometimes \emph{with}
reduplication. 

\subsection{Particles, conjunctions and postpositions}

The enclitic particle \Tur{m\#} turns a sentence into a question,
withe emphasis on the preceeding word; but it does not follow a
predicative ending; rather, this ending jumps to \Tur{m\#}:

\begin{example}
  \Tur{Evde misin?} \Eng{Are you at home (and not somewhere else)?};
  \Tur{Sen mi evdesin?} \Eng{Are you (and not somebody else) at home?}
\end{example}
Similarly, the word \Tur{de\u gil} \Eng{not} takes the predicative
  suffixes, as in \Tur{Evde de\u gilsin} \Eng{You are not at home}. 

The conjunction \Tur{ve} \Eng{and} is from Arabic and can be replaced
with native-Turkish words like the postposition \Tur{ile} \Eng{with}
and the particle \Tur{de} \Eng{too}.

\begin{example}
For \Eng{Ay\c se and David}, we can write \Tur{Ay\c se ve David};
\Tur{Ay\c se ile David}; and \Tur{Ay\c se, David de}.
\end{example}

The \Tur{ile} can be suffixed, as in \Tur{Ay\c seyle}.

\subsection{Verbs}

The dictionary-form of a verb is usually the \tech{infinitive}, a
verbal noun that can be analyzed as
\begin{center}
\tech{stem} + \Tur{m\aesymb k};
\end{center}
otherwise, the stem itself is the dictionary head-word.  Another
verbal noun is stem + \Tur{m\aesymb}; I propose to call this a \tech{gerund},
by analogy with the English gerund.  (Lewis reserves `gerund' for
verbal adverbs.)  

The Turkish infinitive does not have all features of
the noun; for example, it does not take possessive suffixes.  It does
take some of the case-endings though.  In particular, it forms a
locative, to which a predicative suffix can be added to make a finite
verb:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Roman yazmaktay\i m} \Eng{I am engaged in writing a novel}.
\end{example}
The
gerund does have all of the features of nouns (except perhaps that it does
not have a plural).  In particular, it takes possessive suffixes:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Gitmem l\^az\i m} \Eng{My going is necessary}, that is, \Eng{I
  have to go}.
\end{example}
 From the gerund can be formed an
adjective in \Tur{-l\#}, to which a predicative suffix can be added,
yielding a finite, \tech{necessitative} verb: 

\begin{example}
  \Tur{Kalkmal\i s\i n} \Eng{You must get up}; \Tur{Gitmeliyiz}
  \Eng{We must go}.
\end{example}

Other flavors of verb are formed on this pattern and will be discussed
below.

All verbs are \tech{regular}, except the \tech{defective} verb with stem
\Tur{i-}.  This verb does not have all of the
inflexions that regular verbs do; the inflexions that it \emph{does}
have are used with regular verbs to form compounds.
Where there is no inflexion
of \Tur{i-}, but the corresponding \emph{meaning} is needed, then the
stem \Tur{ol-} supplies the inflexion.  Also, \Tur{ol-} in some
inflexions is used like \Tur{var} in an expression of possession.
But \Tur{olmak} can also be treated as a regular verb meaning \Eng{to
  become}. 

I mentioned that there were five series of personal endings.  Here they
are, along with the personal pronouns:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l|r|r|r|r|r|r|} \hline
  0 & \Tur{ben} & \Tur{sen} & \Tur{o} & \Tur{biz} & \Tur{siz} &
  \Tur{onlar} \\ \hline
  1  & \Tur{-(\#)m} & \Tur{-(\#)n} & \Tur{-(s)i} & \Tur{-(\#)m\#z} &
  \Tur{-(\#)n\#z} & \Tur{-l@r\#} \\ \hline 
  2 & \Tur{-(y)\#m} & \Tur{-s\#n} & (\Tur{-d\#r}) & \Tur{-(y)\#z} &
  \Tur{-s\#n\#z} & \Tur{-}(\Tur{d\#r})\Tur{l\aesymb r} \\ \hline 
  3& \Tur{-m} & \Tur{-n} & --- & \Tur{-k} & \Tur{-n\#z} &
  \Tur{-l\aesymb r} \\ \hline 
  4& \Tur{-\aesymb y\#m} & \Tur{-\aesymb s\#n} &
  \Tur{-\aesymb} & \Tur{-\aesymb l\#m} & \Tur{-\aesymb s\#n\#z}
  & \Tur{-\aesymb l\aesymb r} \\ \hline
  5 & & --- & \Tur{-s\#n} &  & \Tur{-\#n}, \Tur{-\#n\#z} &
  \Tur{-s\#nl\aesymb r} \\ 
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
I propose the following names for these series (two of which I gave
earlier): 
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
possessive;
\item
predicative;
\item
\tech{personal} (the term is ambiguous; the point is that the endings
on this line do \emph{nothing} but assign person and number);
\item
\tech{optative};
\item
\tech{imperative}.
\end{enumerate}
The optative and imperative endings might be called \tech{modal}.
They attach directly to verb-stems.  The optative endings (also called
subjunctive) are little used, except in the first person.  Indeed, one
might think that there was a single series of
modal endings, indicating a wish or command:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{| l | r |}\hline
\Tur{gideyim} & \Eng{let me go}\\ \hline
\Tur{git} & \Eng{go}\\ \hline
\Tur{gitsin} & \Eng{let him go/may he go}\\ \hline
\Tur{gidelim} & \Eng{let's go}\\ \hline
\Tur{gidin(iz)} & \Eng{you all go}\\ \hline
\Tur{gitsinler} & \Eng{let them go/may they go}\\ \hline    
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
According to Lewis, in ancient times there were first-person
imperative endings; the singular one influenced the optative, and the
plural one \emph{became} the optative.  Some roles of the optative or
subjunctive are taken by the \tech{conditional}, described below.

Note that every regular stem can stand by itself as a
second-person singular imperative verb. Also, the stem \Tur{i-} does
not take a modal ending, so \Tur{ol-} is used instead:

\begin{example}
\Tur{Ba\c s\i n\i z sa\u g olsun} is a formula offered to somebody
grieving over a death.
The command \Eng{Be quick!} is given by \Tur{\c Cabuk ol!}.
\end{example}

As in the case of the necessitative verb, so generally, a stem must be
lengthened to
an appropriate \tech{base} before a non-modal ending can be added; the
base will express some 
distinctions of \tech{tense} and \tech{aspect} (as well as mood, in
that one of the bases is conditional).
Before looking at bases, I shall first look more at stems.

\subsubsection{Stems}

The two-fold distinction in English between affirmation and denial
(between \Eng{I did it} and \Eng{I didn't do it}) can in Turkish be seen
as three-fold.  By addition of the indicated suffixes, a
stem can become:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{negative}: \Tur{-m\aesymb}; or
  \item
  \tech{impotential}: \Tur{-\aesymb m\aesymb}.
\end{itemize}
Any of the three stems so far can be rendered \tech{potential} by
suffixation of with \Tur{-\aesymb bil}.  

\begin{example}
The defectiveness (in particular, the lack of infinitives) of the English
modal auxiliaries gives various possibilities for translation.  The
second column below gives English infinitives without \Eng{to} (as might
follow the words \Eng{I shall}); the third column gives a finite form (as
might follow \Eng{I}).
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r r|} \hline
 \Tur{gelme-}      &\Eng{not come}                &\Eng{do not come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{geleme-}     &\Eng{not be able to come}     &\Eng{cannot come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{gelebil-}    &\Eng{be able to come}         &\Eng{can come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{gelmiyebil-} &\Eng{be able not to come}     &\Eng{may not come}\\ \hline 
 \Tur{gelemiyebil-}&\Eng{possibly be unable to come}&\Eng{may be
 unable to come}\\ \hline 
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}

The potential form can be considered as a compound with the verb
\Tur{bil-}, meaning \Eng{know}.  Other compounds, less common, are
possible; for example, compounds with \Tur{dur-} \Eng{stop} or \Tur{gel-}
indicate continuous action.  Such compounding might be said to indicate
distinctions of \tech{aspect}.

Moreover, simple negation is achieved, as noted, with \Tur{-m\aesymb}.
The impotential suffix is the negation of the obsolete verb \Tur{u-}
\Eng{be powerful} or \Eng{able}.

The Turkish verb does not make the distinction between permission and
ability that English can make with \Eng{may} and \Eng{can}.

The dictionary-stem (the stem before addition of negative,
impotential or potential suffixes) can sometimes be further analysed.
If it is
not just a verbal \tech{root}, then it might be a noun or adjective with a
verbal suffix, often \Tur{-l\aesymb}.

\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{| r | c l |}\hline
\Tur{ba\c sla-}
&  \Eng{begin} & (make a head)\\ \hline
\Tur{temizle-} & \Eng{clean} & (make
  clean) \\ \hline
\Tur{k\"opekle-} & \Eng{cringe} & (make
  like a dog)\\ \hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

After the root or the \Tur{l\aesymb} in a dictionary-stem, 
\tech{extensions} may be present that indicate distinctions of
\tech{voice}. (If we insist on this term, then Turkish has more voices
than the \tech{active} and \tech{passive} of English;
English does have other ways 
of conveying the additional distinctions of voice that appear in Turkish).

When extensions are present, they appear in the following order:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
  \tech{reflexive}: \Tur{-(\#)n};
  \item
  \tech{reciprocal}: \Tur{-(\#)\c s};
  \item
  \tech{causative}:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \Tur{-t} after polysyllabic stems in \Tur{-l}, \Tur{-r} or a vowel, and
  \item
  \Tur{-d\#r} in other cases, except:
  \item
  \Tur{-\#r}, \Tur{-\aesymb r} or \Tur{-\#t} occur after some monosyllabic
  stems, and
  \item
  some exceptional forms occur as well;
\end{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{passive}: \Tur{-\#l}, after stems ending in a consonant other
  than \Tur{-l} (otherwise it has the same form as the reflexive).
\end{enumerate}

The significance of an extension is not always obvious from its name;
that's why all of the different stems that feature them will generally
appear in the dictionary.

Like the ancient-Greek \tech{middle} voice, the reflexive extension may
suggest a doing \emph{for} and not just \emph{to} oneself, and it may
have the same effect (and even the same form) as a passive extension
(although these two kinds of extensions can be used together as well).

Used together, the reciprocal and causative extensions make the
\tech{repetitive} extension \Tur{-\#\c st\#r} (other suffixes are used to
the same effect in a few cases).

Sometimes the same verbal root can be used \tech{transitively} or
\tech{intransitively}: \Tur{gez-} can mean either \Eng{tour (the
  countryside)} or \Eng{take a walk (in the countryside)}.  Also, the
causative extension can make an intransitive stem 
transitive: \Tur{\"ol-} means \Eng{die}, while \Tur{\"old\"ur-} means
\Eng{kill}, and \Tur{kayna-} and \Tur{kaynat-} mean \Eng{boil}:
respectively, what water does in a pot on the stove, and what I do when I
put the pot there.

Used with a transitive stem, the causative extension could be called
\tech{factitive}: \Tur{\"old\"urt-} means \Eng{have [somebody] killed}.
As here, more than one causative extension can be used.

Here are some more examples of distinctions of voice:

\begin{example}
We have \Tur{bula\c s\i k y\i ka-} \Eng{wash dishes}, but \Tur{y\i
  kan-} \Eng{wash oneself} or \Eng{be washed}; the latter meaning is also
  expressed by \Tur{y\i kan\i l-}.  Also:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
\Tur{bulu\c s-} \Eng{meet} and
  \Tur{bulun-} \Eng{be present};
  \item
\Tur{ara\c st\i r-} \Eng{investigate};
  \item
  \Tur{uyan-} \Eng{awake}, \Tur{uyand\i r-} \Eng{awaken},
  \Tur{uyand\i r\i l-} \Eng{be awakened};
\item
\Tur{\c Ci\c cekleri kopartt\i rmay\i n\i z}, literally, \Eng{Don't
  let anybody allow [their children] to pick the flowers}.
\end{itemize}
\end{example}


\subsubsection{Bases}

Regular verbs have several \tech{participles}, some
of which are formed
from a stem by addition of the following suffixes:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
\tech{present}: \Tur{-\aesymb n};
\item
\tech{future}: \Tur{-(y)\aesymb c\aesymb k};
\item
\tech{past}: \Tur{-m\i\c s};
  \item
  \tech{aorist} (not used with negative stems):
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  positive: \Tur{-\aesymb r}, \Tur{-\#r} or \Tur{-r};
  \item
  negative: \Tur{-m\aesymb z}.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}
The predicative endings can be added to all of these participles but
the present, turning them into finite verbs of the corresponding
\tech{tenses}.  Here, \Tur{i-} has only the past tense.

There is said to be an ancient verb \Tur{yor-} \Eng{go} or
\Eng{walk}.  It survives as a suffix \Tur{-\#yor}, which can be
attached to a stem; the result does not stand on its own as a
participle, but can receive a predicative suffix, making a
\tech{present} tense.

The aorist tense denotes habitual action; the present, ongoing
action.  The one past tense given so far may be called
\tech{inferential}, as its use does not imply that the speaker
witnessed the event described---unless \Tur{-d\#r} is added.

Since the third-singular predicative ending is empty, the bases we
have now are also complete sentences:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|}\hline
 \Tur{Okuyor} & \Eng{(S)he is reading}\\ \hline
\Tur{Okumakta} & \Eng{(S)he is engaged in reading}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okuyacak} & \Eng{(S)he will read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okur} & \Eng{(S)he reads}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okumaz} & \Eng{(S)he does not read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okumu\c s} & \Eng{It seems that (s)he read}\\ \hline
(\Tur{Okumu\c stur} & \Eng{(S)he read})\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okumal\i} & \Eng{(S)he must read} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

Two more bases are formed from stems by addition of the following
\tech{characteristics}:  
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{simple past}: \Tur{-d\#};
  \item
  \tech{conditional}: \Tur{-s\aesymb}.
\end{itemize}
These attach to the stems of all verbs, including \Tur{i-}.  The
resulting bases take the personal endings.  We have then, for example:

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|}\hline
 \Tur{Okudu} & \Eng{[I saw that] (s)he did read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Okusa} & \Eng{If (s)he would read\dots}\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

All verbs formed with predicative or personal endings might be said to
 have the \tech{indicative} mood.  In particular, saying that a
conditional verb is indicative makes sense if one takes \Eng{If $A$
 then $B$} to mean just \Eng{$B$ 
or not-$A$.} 

All bases so far described are \tech{simple}.  On the stem \Tur{i-}
are \tech{simple} are also formed \tech{compound} bases.  The simple
bases result from suffixing a characteristic
\Tur{-m\#\c s}, \Tur{-d\#} or \Tur{-s\aesymb} only.  The non-conditional
simple bases can be rendered conditional by being compounded with that
simple base. Thus the bases in \Tur{i-} are five:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}\hline
 \Tur{imi\c s-} & \Tur{imi\c sse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{idi-} & \Tur{idiyse-}\\ \hline
 \Tur{ise-} & \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

All verb-bases have now been described.  The bases formed on \Tur{i-}
must be completed with personal endings.  Personal endings \emph{may} be
attached to regular bases, as noted.  Alternatively, a complete verb
formed on a simple base in \Tur{i-} can follow or be suffixed to a
regular verb-base.

\begin{example}
By appending bases in \Tur{i-} to indicative stems in \Tur{oku-}, these
forms can be produced:\\
\noindent
\mbox{}\hspace{-.5em}\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|} \hline
 \Tur{okuyormu\c s} & \Tur{okuyordu} & \Tur{okuyorsa} & \Tur{okuyormu\c
 ssa} & \Tur{okuyorduysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okuyacakm\i\c s} &
 \Tur{okuyacakt\i} & \Tur{okuyacaksa} & \Tur{okuyacakm\i \c ssa} &
 \Tur{okuyacakt\i ysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okurmu\c s} & \Tur{okurdu} &
 \Tur{okursa} & \Tur{okurmu\c ssa} & \Tur{okurduysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumazm\i \c s} & \Tur{okumazd\i} & \Tur{okumazsa} & \Tur{okumazm\i\c
 ssa} & \Tur{okumazd\i ysa}\\ \hline 
 \Tur{okumu\c s imi\c s} &
 \Tur{okumu\c stu} & \Tur{okumu\c ssa} & \Tur{okumu\c s imi\c ssa} &
 \Tur{okumu\c s idiyse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumal\i ym\i\c s} & \Tur{okumal\i yd\i} &  & & \\ \hline
  & \Tur{okuduydu} & \Tur{okuduysa} &  & \Tur{okudu idiyse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okusaym\i\c s} & \Tur{okusayd\i} &  &  & \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{example}

If it is not associated in this way with a regular verb-base, then a
complete verb in \Tur{i-} must follow or be suffixed to a noun, pronoun,
adjective or \Tur{de\u gil}.

In a verb with two characteristics, the second being conditional, the
personal ending may \emph{precede} this.

The distinction between the present and the aorist characteristics is of
aspect.  The aorist indicates habitual action; the present, an action
ongoing or envisaged.  A third way to indicate a present tense is by
appending type-I endings or a verb in \Tur{i-} to an infinitive in the
locative case: the result indicates ongoing action only.

\begin{example}
From \Tur{yaz-} \Eng{write} we can form:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \Tur{Romanlar yazar\i m}, \Eng{I write novels};
  \item
  \Tur{Roman yaz\i yorum}, \Eng{I am writing a novel [now, or in the
  future]};
  \item
  \Tur{Roman yazmaktay\i m}, \Eng{I am engaged in writing a novel.}
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The inferential characteristic is originally a past-participial ending.
Used in a \emph{regular} base, it indicates past action.  This action is
inferred from present appearances, or reported by somebody else---unless
the regular base is followed by \Tur{-d\#r} or a verb in \Tur{i-}, in
which case no suggestion of hearsay or inference is meant.  In
particular, the ending \Tur{-m\#\c st\#r} has the same force as
\Tur{-d\#}.  The form \Tur{imi\c s-} may not indicate past time at all,
but only hearsay.

\begin{example}
\Tur{Bar\i\c s} means \Eng{peace}; so:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  A newspaper headline could read \Tur{Bar\i\c s geldi};
  \item
  The story under that head might say \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c stir};
  \item
  Somebody who read the story might report \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c s}, or
  possibly \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c s imi\c s}, \Eng{Peace is said to have
  come.}
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The \tech{pluperfect} tense is usually formed with \Tur{-m\#\c s (+)
idi-}, more rarely with \Tur{-d\# (+) idi}.

The \tech{interrogative} particle is \Tur{m\#}; it always starts a new
word.  It makes a sentence into a question with a \Tur{evet/hay\i r}
(\Eng{yes/no}) answer, and it follows the word that could also be an
answer to the question.  If this word is the verb, then the \emph{base}
is what is followed by \Tur{m\#}; the personal ending, or the form of
\Tur{i-} in use, is attached to this.

Exceptions include the following.  If the personal ending is \Tur{-l@r},
then \Tur{m\#} follows this, unless \Tur{-d\#r} is also used.  The
characteristic \Tur{d\#} of the simple past is inseparable from an
attached personal ending, so if there is one, then \Tur{m\#} must follow
this.

\section{Glossary}\label{glossary}

Turkish words here ending with a hyphen are verbs.  (Some dictionaries
replace the hyphen with \Tur{m@k}, giving the infinitive.)

\noindent
\Tur{alt\i n} \Eng{gold}\\
\Tur{ara-} \Eng{seek}\\
\Tur{at} \Eng{horse}\\
\Tur{baba} \Eng{father}\\
\Tur{ba\c s} \Eng{head}\\
\Tur{beyaz} \Eng{white}\\
\Tur{bil-} \Eng{know}\\
\Tur{bo\c s} \Eng{empty}\\
\Tur{bul-} \Eng{find}\\
\Tur{buz} \Eng{ice}\\
\Tur{\c cabuk} \Eng{quick}\\
\Tur{\c c\i k-} \Eng{go out or up}\\
\Tur{\c c\i plak} \Eng{naked}\\
\Tur{\c ci\c cek} \Eng{flower}\\
\Tur{\c cocuk} \Eng{child}\\
\Tur{da\u g} \Eng{mountain}\\
\Tur{dur} \Eng{stop}\\
\Tur{ev} \Eng{house}\\
\Tur{gel-} \Eng{come}\\
\Tur{gece} \Eng{night}\\
\Tur{gez-} \Eng{tour, walk}\\
\Tur{git-} \Eng{go}\\
\Tur{g\"un} \Eng{day}\\
\Tur{h\i z} \Eng{speed}\\
\Tur{kalk-} \Eng{get up}\\
\Tur{kop-} \Eng{break off}\\
\Tur{koyun} \Eng{sheep}\\
\Tur{kayna-} \Eng{boil}\\
\Tur{k\"opek} \Eng{dog}\\
\Tur{k\"upe} \Eng{earring}\\
\Tur{l\^az\i m} \Eng{necessary}\\
\Tur{oda} \Eng{room}\\
\Tur{oku-} \Eng{read}\\
\Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die}\\
\Tur{sa\u g} \Eng{alive, right}\\
\Tur{s\"ut} \Eng{milk}\\
\Tur{\c seker} \Eng{sugar}\\
\Tur{\c siir} \Eng{poem}\\
\Tur{tanr\i} \Eng{god}\\
\Tur{temiz} \Eng{clean}\\
\Tur{uyu-} \Eng{sleep}\\
\Tur{yaz-} \Eng{write}\\
\Tur{y\i ka-} \Eng{wash}\\
\Tur{zaman} \Eng{time}



\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{Lewis}G. L. Lewis, \emph{Turkish Grammar}, Oxford, 1967.
\bibitem{Hengirmen}Mehmet Hengirmen, \emph{Turkish Grammar For Foreign
Students}, Ankara: Engin, 2000.
\end{thebibliography}

\end{document}
