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\begin{document}
\title{The Logic of Turkish}
\author{David Pierce}
\publishers{Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University\\
Istanbul, Turkey\\
\url{mat.msgsu.edu.tr/~dpierce/}\\
\url{polytropy.com}}
\date{September 12, 2014\\
  March 30, 2015\\
  May 5, 2018}

\maketitle


\chapter*{Preface}


It is a mystery how a young child can learn a language,
seemingly without effort, and without any sense of the analysis
that adult scholars will use to understand the language.

These notes are an analysis of the majority language of Turkey,
made by a native speaker of English.
To me, Turkish is remarkable in a number of ways:
\begin{compactenum}
  \item
It is an \emph{inflected} language, like Greek or Latin (or French, as
far as verbs are concerned).
Turkish nouns are \emph{declined,} and verbs are \emph{conjugated}:
a noun or verb from the dictionary 
takes on various forms when actually in use.
\item
However, while Greek is taught as having three \emph{declensions}
\cite{Smyth},%%%%%
\footnote{Bracketed numerals refer to the Bibliography at the end.}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
and Latin as having five \cite{POLD},
Turkish has only one 
(see \Chapter\ref{ch:nouns}, \page\pageref{cases}).
\item
Likewise, while Greek has two \emph{conjugations,}
and Latin has four, and French has three \cite{LdP},
Turkish has only one
(\Chapter\ref{ch:conj}, \page\pageref{ch:conj}).
\item
In Turkish there are no such irregularities as in English,
where \Eng{am, are, is,} and \Eng{were} are understood as forms of \Eng{be,}
while \Eng{went} is a form of \Eng{go.}
\item
A Latin noun is \emph{feminine} or \emph{masculine,}
and a Greek noun may also be \emph{neuter.}
Thus Latin and Greek nouns have \emph{gender};
but Turkish nouns have none.
English retains three genders
in the third-person pronouns \Eng{she, he,} and \Eng{it};
but Turkish has only one third-person pronoun (\page\pageref{on}).
\item
Beyond inflexion, Turkish has manifold regular ways of building
up complex words from simple roots (\page\pageref{sect:avrupa}).
\item
Thus, although much Turkish grammar and vocabulary can be explained through
\emph{morphology,}
the explanation need not be cluttered up with many paradigms illustrating
the various means to the same end.
\item
There is no Turkish verb like \Eng{have};
possession is indicated by personal suffixes 
(\pages\pageref{sect:suf} \&\ \pageref{ch:conj}).
\item
Turkish has eight written vowels, like Finnish \cite{finnish},
and their use (in both languages)
shows regular variations
that correspond to \emph{vowel harmony} in speech 
(\pages\pageref{vh0} \&\ \pageref{vh}).
\item
Turkish has many regular formulas for use in social interactions
(\Chapter\ref{ch:day}, \page\pageref{ch:day}).
\end{compactenum}

The present document may be of practical value to the visitor to Turkey.
It may help the reader puzzle out
what a sign or a package label might mean.
I assume the reader 
will be interested in the variety of ways 
that humans have developed to express themselves in words.

I first visited Turkey in 1998, and I moved here in 2000,
joining the mathematics department 
of Middle East Technical University in Ankara.
But the language of instruction there is English.
I have used Turkish for communicating with my students 
only since 2011,
when I moved to Istanbul and joined the mathematics department
of Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University.

I first learned Turkish from Bengisu Rona's
\emph{Turkish in Three Months} \cite{Rona},
and then from Geoffrey Lewis's \emph{Turkish Grammar} \cite{Lewis2}.
Lewis can be read for literary pleasure.
He succeeds in sharing the excitement of the discoveries
that he has made about the uses of Turkish.
Although I have benefited from other works too
(which are found in the Bibliography),
Lewis is the main source for the grammatical analysis that I present.
I have however made some adjustments and simplifications to suit my purposes
and understanding.

I dedicate this work to the memory of Chaninah Maschler 
(October 13, 1931---August 7, 2014),
my language tutor during my first year at St.\ John's College 
(Annapolis \&\ Santa Fe).  
From her I learned Ancient Greek,
and I learned about language itself and the life of inquiry.

\tableofcontents
\listoffigures

\chapter{Preliminaries}

\section{Origins}

Persian is an Indo-European language; Arabic is a Semitic language.
Turkish is neither Indo-European nor Semitic, but Turkic.  However,
Turkish has borrowed many words from Persian and Arabic.

English too has borrowed many words from another language, namely French, 
but for opposite or complementary reasons.
In the eleventh century of the Common Era, 
in 1066 to be precise, the Normans invaded England,
thus making their dialect of French the language of the ruling class.  
Meanwhile, Seljuk%%%%%
\footnote{The founder of the Seljuk dynasty 
is \Tur{Sel\c cuk} in Turkish,
but the adjective derived from his name is \Tur{Sel\c cuklu.}  
See the suffix \Tur{-l\#} on \page\pageref{li}.}
Turks overran Persia;
but rather than imposing their language on the country,
they themselves adopted Persian, with its Arabic borrowings, 
as their administrative and literary language
\cite[\refpage xx]{Lewis2}.  
Seljuks under Alp Arslan also invaded Anatolia, 
defeating the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes in 1071 
at the Battle of Manzikert.%%%%%
\footnote{The Turkish name for the town is \emph{Malazgirt}; 
the order of battle there is shown in an historical atlas 
\cite[\refpage38]{Dagtekin} 
used by schoolchildren in Turkey.}  

Soon Anatolia was invaded from the west as well.
In 1095, in what is now Clermont-Ferrand,
Pope Urban II preached the first Crusade.
The first Crusaders reached Constantinople (Istanbul) in the following year
\cite{Runciman}.
Ultimately, from the ruins of the Byzantine and Seljuk Empires, 
there arose the \Tur{Osmanl\i\ \.Imparatorlu\u gu,} the Ottoman Empire.
Osman himself died as his followers took Bursa in 1326.
They went on to take Adrianople (Edirne) in Thrace in 1360,
and then Constantinople itself in 1453 \cite{Kinross-oc}.

The last Ottoman Sultan was deposed in 1922.
The Turkish Republic was declared
by Mustafa Kemal, the future Atat\"urk,
in the following year.

Ottoman Turkish freely borrowed words from Persian and Arabic
\cite{Redhouse}.  
Many of the borrowings were abolished
in the Language Reform, which got going around 1930.
As Lewis writes in \emph{The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success} 
\cite[\refpage2]{Lewis-Cat}, this reform 
``could more accurately be termed a revolution 
than a reform, since `reform' implies improvement'';
and indeed, Language Revolution (\Tur{Dil Devrimi}) 
is what the transformation is called in Turkish.
Some Arabic and Persian words have been retained 
in the language of the Turkish Republic;
others have been replaced, 
either by neologisms fashioned in supposedly Turkic style, 
or by borrowings from European languages like French. 

\section{Alphabet}

Ottoman Turkish was
written in the Arabic or Arabo-Persian alphabet.%%%%%
\footnote{The Greek alphabet could also be used,
  as for example in the inscription on a stone
  that I once saw in the museum in Milas 
(the Mylasa mentioned in Herodotus) 
  in the Mu\u gla province of Turkey.}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Since the \Tur{Harf Devrimi} \Eng{Letter Revolution,}
culminating in the law 
``On the Adoption and Application of the New Turkish Letters'' of 1928
\cite[\refpages27, 37]{Lewis-Cat}, 
Turkish has been written in an alphabet derived,
like the English alphabet, from the Latin alphabet.
To obtain the 29-letter Turkish alphabet from the 26-letter English alphabet:
\begin{compactenum}[1)]
  \item
throw out (\letter Q,~\letter q), (\letter W,~\letter w), and (\letter
X,~\letter x);
\item
replace the letter (\letter I,~\letter i) with the two letters
(\letter I,~\letter {\i}) and 
(\letter {\.I},~\letter i);
and
\item
introduce the new letters (\letter{\c C},~\letter{\c c}), (\letter
{\u G},~\letter {\u g}), (\letter {\"O},~\letter {\"o}), (\letter {\c
  S},~\letter {\c s}), (\letter {\"U},~\letter {\"u}).%%%%%
\footnote{The dotless \letter{\i} being hard to read in handwriting,
Atat\"urk wrote it as \letter{\u{\i}}.
This can be seen in samples of his writing in museums.} 
\end{compactenum}
In alphabetical order, the 29 Turkish letters are:
\begin{center}
  \letter{A}\,   \letter{B}\,   \letter{C}\,    \letter{\c C}\, \letter{D}\,
  \letter{E}\,   \letter{F}\,   \letter{G}\,    \letter{\u G}\, \letter{H}\,
  \letter{I}\,   \letter{\.I}\, \letter{J}\,    \letter{K}\,    \letter{L}\\
  \letter{M}\,   \letter{N}\,   \letter{O}\,    \letter{\"O}\,  \letter{P}\,
  \letter{R}\,   \letter{S}\,   \letter{\c S}\, \letter{T}\,    \letter{U}\,
  \letter{\"U}\, \letter{V}\,   \letter{Y}\,    \letter{Z}. 
\end{center}
There are 8 vowels, namely \letter{a, e, \i, i, o, \"o, u,} and \letter{\"u,} 
and their
names are themselves.  The remaining 21 letters are consonants.  The
name of a consonant $x$ is $x$\letter e, with
one exception: \letter{\u g} is \Tur{yumu\c sak ge,} \Eng{soft \letter g.}

\section{Pronunciation}

Turkish words are spelled as they are spoken.  
They are \emph{usually} spoken as they are spelled;
but some words taken from Persian and Arabic
are pronounced in ways that are not fully reflected in
spelling.\footnote{This is by design: the alphabet was intended for
  transcribing 
  ``pure'' spoken Turkish \cite[\refpages189~f.]{Zurcher}.  However, a circumflex
  might be used to indicate a 
  peculiarity, or a distinction such as that between the Persian \Tur{k\^ar}
  \Eng{profit} and the Turkish
  \Tur{kar} \Eng{snow.}  Still, the circumflex does not affect the alphabetical
  order of a word.}  Except in these loanwords, there is no variation
between long and short vowels.\footnote{I shall say presently that
  \letter{\u g} lengthens the preceding vowel; but one can think of
  the extra length as belonging to the consonant.}  There is hardly
any variation between stressed and unstressed syllables.

According to their pronunciation, 
the eight Turkish vowels can be understood as labelling the vertices of a cube.
I propose to think of all of the vowels as deviations 
from the dotless letter~\letter{\i.}  As
fits its simple written form,~\letter {\i} is pronounced by relaxing
the mouth 
completely, but keeping the teeth nearly clenched: the opening of the
mouth can then be conceived of as a sideways~\letter{\i.}
The Turkish (unofficial) national drink \Tur{rak\i}
is \emph{not} pronounced like \Eng{rocky}: 
in the latter word's latter syllable, 
the tongue is too far forward.  
Relax the tongue in the latter syllable, letting it fall back; 
\emph{then} you can properly ask for a glass of \Tur{rak\i.}%%%%%
\footnote{In my experience, Turks who work with tourists
may adopt tourists' mispronunciation of \Tur{rak\i.}}
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

The letter
\letter{\i} is the 
\textbf{back, unround, close} 
vowel.  Other vowels deviate from this by being \textbf{front, round,}
or \textbf{open,}  
as tabulated in Figure \ref{fig:vowels}.
\begin{figure}
\centering
  \begin{tabular}[b]{|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline
&\letter{\i}  &back&&\\\cline{2-3}
&\letter i    &front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{unround}&\\\cline{2-4}
\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\letter{\#}}
  &\letter u  &back&&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{close}\\\cline{2-3} 
  &\letter{\"u} &front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{round}&\\\hline
&\letter a    &back&&\\\cline{2-3}
\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\letter@}
  &\letter e  &front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{unround}&\\\cline{1-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|r|}{\letter o}    
   &back&&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{open}\\\cline{1-3}
\multicolumn{2}{|r|}{\letter{\"o}} 
   &front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{round}&\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\caption{The vowels}\label{fig:vowels}
\end{figure}
Physically, the deviations correspond to
movements of the tongue, lips, and jaw, respectively; 
in the geometric conception of Figure \ref{fig:cube},
\begin{figure}
  \centering
  \psset{unit=12mm}
  \begin{pspicture}%[0.5]
(-2,-2)(2,2)
%\psline(-2,-2)(0,-2)
\rput(-1.6,1.6){\circlenode{o}{\Large \letter o}}
\rput(-1.6,-1.6){\circlenode{a}{\Large \letter a}}
\rput(1.6,-1.6){\circlenode{e}{\Large \letter e}}
\rput(1.6,1.6){\circlenode{oe}{\Large \letter{\"o}}}
\ncline{o}{a}
\ncline{e}{oe}
\ncline{oe}{o}
\rput(-0.8,0.8){\circlenode{u}{\letter u}}
\rput(-0.8,-0.8){\circlenode{I}{\letter{\i}}}
\rput(0.8,-0.8){\circlenode{i}{\letter i}}
\rput(0.8,0.8){\circlenode{ue}{\letter{\"u}}}
\ncline{o}{u}
\ncline{a}{I}
\ncline{e}{i}
\ncline{oe}{ue}
\rput(0,-1.1){unround}
\rput(0,1.2){round}
\rput(-1.2,0){back}
\rput(1.2,0){front}
\rput(0,0.3){close}
\rput(0,-1.6){\rnode{@}{\psframebox{\Large\letter @}}}
\rput(0,-0.2){\rnode{sh}{\psframebox{\small\letter{\#}}}}
\psset{linestyle=dotted}
\ncline{a}{@}
\ncline{@}{e}
\ncline{u}{I}
\ncline{I}{i}
\ncline{i}{ue}
\ncline{ue}{u}
%\psgrid(-2,-2)(2,2)
%    \psset{viewpoint=-1 -1 1}
%\ThreeDput[normal=0 0 1]{\psgrid(-3,-3)(6,6)}
  \end{pspicture}
\caption{The vowel cube}\label{fig:cube}
\end{figure}
the deviations correspond respectively to movement right, up, and forward.  
For later discussion
of \emph{vowel harmony,}\label{vh0}
I let \letter{\#} stand for a generic close
vowel; \letter@, for a generic unround, open vowel.\footnote{I do
not know of anybody else who uses this notation.  
G\"oksel and Kerslake \cite[\refpages xxxiii, 22]{Goksel-Kerslake}
use capital I and A respectively.
According to Lewis
\cite[I, 34, \refpage17]{Lewis2}, some people write \Tur{-ler$^2$,} for
example, to indicate that there are two possibilies for the vowel;
instead, I shall write 
\Tur{-l@r.}  Likewise, instead of \Tur{-in$^4$,} 
which has four possibilities,
I shall write \Tur{-\#n}.} 

The vowel \letter a is like \Eng{uh} in English;
  \letter{\"o} and \letter{\"u} are as 
in German, or are like the French \Eng{eu} and \Eng{u}; and Turkish
  \letter{u} is 
like the English \Eng{o\u{\textcompwordmark}o}
of \Eng{put} and \Eng{soot.}  
Diphthongs are obtained by addition of 
\letter y: so, \Tur{ay} is like the English \Eng{\=\i} of \Eng{sky,} 
and \Tur{ey} is the English \Eng{\=a} of \Eng{state.}%%%%%
\footnote{The English pronunciation symbols here
are as in Fowler's scheme:
``\=a \=e \={\i} \=o \=u o\={\textcompwordmark}o (\emph{mate, mete, mite, mote, mute, moot}),
``\u a \u e \u{\i} \u o \u u o\u{\textcompwordmark}o (\emph{rack, reck, rick, rock, ruck, root})'' \cite[\refpage iv]{Fowler}.}

The consonants that need mention are: \letter c, like English \Eng{j;}
\letter{\c c}, like English \Eng{ch;}
\letter{\u g}, which lengthens the vowel that precedes
it (and never begins a word); \letter{j}, as in French; and \letter{\c
  s}, like English \Eng{sh.}  Doubled consonants are held longer:
\Tur{elli} \Eng{fifty} is different from \Tur{eli} \Eng{[somebody]'s hand.}

\chapter{Everyday expressions}\label{ch:day}

By learning some of the following, 
you can impress or amuse Turkish people, 
or at least avoid embarrassing yourself 
when trying to open a door or visit the loo. 

\section{Interactions}

\Tur{L\"utfen/Te\c sekk\"urler}
\Eng{Please/Thanks.}\\
\Tur{Bir \c sey de\u gil}
\Eng{You're welcome, it's nothing} (literally \Eng{One thing it-is-not}).\\
\Tur{Evet/hay\i r} \Eng{Yes/no.}\hfill  \Tur{Var/yok} \Eng{There is/there
  isn't.}\\
\Tur{Affedersiniz} \Eng{Excuse me.}
\Tur{Af, aff-} is from an
  Arabic verbal noun, meaning
  \emph{a pardoning;} and \Tur{edersiniz} is the second-person plural
  or polite aorist form of \Tur{et-} \Eng{make.}  Turkish
  makes a lot of verbs with \Tur{et-} this way.  For example, thanks
  is also expressed by \Tur{Te\c sekk\"ur ederim} \Eng{I make a thanking.}
Grammatically, \Tur{affedersiniz} is
a statement, \Eng{You pardon,} 
and not a command.\\
\Tur{Efendim} \Eng{Madam or Sir.}
A polite way to address anybody,
including when answering the telephone;
the literal meaning is \Eng{my effendi,}
from the Greek
\selectlanguage{polutonikogreek}\textporson{a>uj'enthc}\selectlanguage{english},
  whence also English \Eng{authentic.}\\    
\Tur{Beyefendi/Han\i mefendi} \Eng{Sir/Madam.}\\
\Tur{Merhaba} \Eng{Hello.}\\
\Tur{G\"unayd\i n} \Eng{Good morning} (literally \Eng{Day [is] bright}).\\ 
\Tur{Ho\c s geldiniz/Ho\c s bulduk} \Eng{Welcome}/the response to this
(literally \Eng{You came well/We found well}).\\
\Tur{\.Iyi g\"unler/ak\c samlar/geceler} \Eng{Good
  day/evening/night.}
The suffix \Tur{-l@r} makes these
  expressions formally plural.\\
\Tur{G\"ule g\"ule}\label{gule} \Eng{Fare well}
(literally \Eng{[Go] smilingly}).
Said to the person who is leaving.\\
\Tur{Allaha \i smarlad\i k} or \Tur{Ho\c s\c ca kal\i n}
\Eng{Good bye} (literally \Eng{To-God we-commended} or
    \Eng{Pleasantly stay}).  Said to the
person who is staying behind.

\section{Signs}

\Tur{Bay/Bayan} \Eng{Mr/Ms,} or \Eng{gentlemen's/ladies'} toilet,
  clothing, \&c.\\ 
\Tur{\.Itiniz/\c cekiniz} \Eng{Push/pull} the door.
\hfill\Tur{Giri\c s/\c c\i k\i \c s} \Eng{entrance/exit.}\\ 
\Tur{Sol/sa\u g} \Eng{left/right.}\hfill \Tur{So\u guk/s\i cak} \Eng{cold/hot.}

\section{Pleasantries}

\Tur{Nas\i ls\i n\i z?/\.Iyiyim, te\c sekk\"urler; siz?/Ben de iyiyim.}\\
\Eng{How are you?/I'm fine, thanks; you?/I'm also fine.}
The
  sec\-ond-person forms
  here are plural or polite; the familiar singular forms are
  \Tur{Nas\i ls\i n?/\dots sen?}\\
\Tur{Elinize sa\u gl\i k} \Eng{Health to your hand.}  This is a standard
compliment to a
chef, who will reply: \Tur{Afiyet olsun} \Eng{May it be healthy.}  Anybody
may say \Tur{Afiyet olsun} to somebody who is eating, is about to eat,
or has finished eating.  The closest expression in English
is not English, but French: \Eng{bon app\'etit.}\\
\Tur{Kolay gelsin} \Eng{May [your work] come easy.}
Said to anybody at work,
whether as a friendly acknowledgment or as a prelude to an interruption.\\
\Tur{Ge\c cmi\c s olsun}\label{gecmis}  
\Eng{May [your sickness, difficulty, \&c.] have passed} 
(this can also be said \emph{after} the trouble has passed).\\
\Tur{\.In\c sallah} \Eng{If God wills}: if all goes according to
plan.\\
\Tur{Ma\c sallah} \Eng{May God protect from the evil eye.}  Used
to avoid jinxing what one praises; also written on vehicles as if to
compensate for 
maniacal driving.\\
\Tur{Allah korusun} \Eng{May God protect.} Also written on vehicles.\\
\Tur{Rica ederim} \Eng{I request} and \Tur{Esta\u gfurullah}
can be used with the sense of \Eng{I don't deserve 
  such praise!} or \Eng{Don't say such [denigrating] things about yourself!}
The former is literally \Eng{I
      make a request,} on the pattern of \Tur{affedersiniz.}\\
\Tur{\c Cok ya\c say\i n!/Siz de g\"or\"un} \Eng{Live long!/You too see
  [long life].}
The response to a sneeze, and the sneezer's acknowledgement.
The familiar forms are \Tur{\c Cok ya\c sa/sen de g\"or.}\\
\Tur{Tanr\i/tanr\i\c ca} \Eng{god/goddess.}
The latter is a neologism derived from the former
  by use of a Serbo-Croat feminine suffix,
  on the model of \Tur{krali\c ce} \Eng{queen} from \Tur{kral} \Eng{king}
  \cite[II.1, \refpage23]{Lewis2}.

\section{Numbers}

\Tur{S\i f\i r} \Eng{zero.}\vphantom{p}\\
\begin{tabular}{*9{@{}p{0.111\textwidth}}@{}}%{@{}*8{l|}l@{}}
    \hline
\Tur{Bir}&\Tur{iki}&\Tur{\"u\c c}&\Tur{d\"ort}&\Tur{be\c s}&\Tur{alt\i}&\Tur{yedi}&\Tur{sekiz}&\Tur{dokuz}\\
  1&2&3&4&5&6&7&8&9.\\\hline
  \Tur{On}&\Tur{yirmi}&\Tur{otuz}&\Tur{k\i rk}&\Tur{elli}&\Tur{altm\i\c s}&\Tur{yetmi\c s}&\Tur{seksen}&\Tur{doksan}\\
  10&20&30&40&50&60&70&80&90.\\\hline
\end{tabular}\\
  \Tur{Y\"uz/bin/milyon}
  100/1000/\Eng{million.}\\
\Tur{Y\"uz k\i rk dokuz milyon be\c s y\"uz doksan yedi bin sekiz
  y\"uz yetmi\c s}
\Eng{one hundred forty nine million five hundred ninety seven thousand
  eight hundred seventy.}

%\\\mbox{}\hfill 149,597,870.

\section{Comparisons}

\Tur{B\"uyuk/k\"u\c c\"uk} \Eng{large/small.}\hfill
\Tur{Daha/en}\label{daha} \Eng{more/most.}\\
\Tur{Az / en az} \Eng{less/least.}\hfill
\Tur{A\c sa\u g\i/yukar\i} \Eng{lower/upper.}\\
\Tur{Alt/\"ust} \Eng{bottom/top.}\hfill
\Tur{D\i\c s/i\c c} \Eng{outside/inside.}

\section{Verbs}

Verbs are given here as \emph{stems}
(\Chapter\ref{ch:conj}, \page\pageref{ch:conj}).

\noindent\Tur{Al-/sat-/ver-} \Eng{take, buy / sell / give.}\\
\Tur{Al\i\c s/sat\i\c s/al\i\c sveri\c s} \Eng{buying/selling/shopping.}\\
\Tur{Git-/gel-} \Eng{go/come.}\label{gel}\\
\begin{tabular}{@{}*3{l|}l}\hline
  \Tur{\.In-}&\Tur{bin-}&\Tur{gir-}&\Tur{\c c\i k-}\\
  \Eng{go down, get off}&\Eng{get on}&\Eng{go into}&\Eng{go out or up.}
  \\\hline
\end{tabular}

\section{Colors}

\Tur{Renk} \Eng{color.}\\
\Tur{Kahve} \Eng{coffee;} \Tur{portakal} \Eng{orange;}
\Tur{turun\c c} \Eng{bitter orange.}\\  
\Tur{K\i rm\i z\i\ / portakalrengi, turuncu / sar\i}
\Eng{red/orange/yellow.}\\  
\Tur{ye\c sil/mavi/mor}
\Eng{green/blue/purple.}\\
\Tur{kara, siyah / ak, beyaz / kahverengi}
\Eng{black/white/brown.}

\section{Interrogatives and demonstratives}

\Tur{O/bu/\c su}\label{o/bu}
\Eng{that} / \Eng{this} / pointed-to (thing).\\
\Tur{Ne/kim/ka\c c?} \Eng{what} / \Eng{who} / \Eng{how many (or much)?}\\
{\setlength{\tabcolsep}{3pt}
\begin{tabular}{@{}*5{c|}c@{}}\hline
\Tur{Ne zaman} & \Tur{nerede} & \Tur{nereye}
  & \Tur{nereden} & \Tur{neden}
 & \Tur{ne kadar?}\\
\Eng{When} & \Eng{where} & \Eng{whither} &
  \Eng{whence} & \Eng{why} & \Eng{how much?}\\\hline
  \Tur{O zaman}&\Tur{orada}&\Tur{oraya}&\Tur{oradan}&\Tur{ondan}&\Tur{o kadar}\\
  \Eng{Then}&\Eng{there}&\Eng{thither}&\Eng{thence}&\Eng{from that}&\Eng{that much.}\\\hline
\Tur{\c Simdi}&\Tur{burada}&\Tur{buraya}&\Tur{buradan}&\Tur{bundan}&\Tur{bu kadar}\\
\Eng{now}&\Eng{here}&\Eng{hither}&\Eng{hence}&\Eng{from this}&\Eng{this much.}
  \\\hline 
\end{tabular}}\\
\Tur{Nas\i l} \Eng{how?} (\Tur{ne + as\i l} = \Eng{what + basis}).\\
\Tur{Ni\c cin} \Eng{why?} (\Tur{ne + i\c cin} = \Eng{what + for}).\\
\Tur{\"Oyle/b\"oyle/\c s\"oyle}
\Eng{Thus} / \Eng{this way} / \Eng{this \textnormal{indicated} way.}\\
\Tur{\c S\"oyle b\"oyle} \Eng{so-so.}

\chapter{Grammar}

\section{Relatives}%\label{ch:bit}

The \textbf{interrogatives} given above---\Tur{kim, ne,} \&c.---%
also function as rudimentary relatives,
at least colloquially:
\begin{compactitem}[]\sloppy
  \item
    \Tur{Ne zaman gelecekler} \Eng{When will they come?}
    \item
      \Tur{Bilmiyorum} \Eng{I don't know}.
      \item
\Tur{Ne zaman gelecekler bilmiyorum}
\Eng{I dunno when they'll come.}
\end{compactitem}
Such a sentence is an instance of what Lewis calls
\emph{asyndetic subordination} \cite[Ch.~XXI, \refpage269]{Lewis2}.
In precise speech, one says
\begin{center}
  \Tur{Ne zaman geleceklerini bilmiyorum,}
\end{center}
where
\begin{compactitem}[]
  \item
\Tur{geleceklerini} is a case
(\S~\ref{sect:declension}, \page\pageref{sect:declension})
of
\item
  \Tur{gelecekleri,} the 3rd-person plural
(\pages\pageref{lar} and \pageref{onlar})
  of
  \item
\Tur{gelecek-}, the future participle
(\S~\ref{sect:part}, \page\pageref{sect:part})
of
\item
  \Tur{gel-}, the verb listed earlier
  (\page\pageref{gel}).
\end{compactitem}
Most of the work done in English by relative clauses
is thus done in Turkish by verbal adjectives, or participles:
\Eng{the book that I gave you} in Turkish becomes
\begin{center}
  \Tur{size verdi\u gim kitap:}
\end{center}
\Eng{you-wards given-by-me book}, or
\Eng{the book given to you by me,} where
\begin{compactitem}[]
\item
  \Tur{verdi\u gim} is the 1st-person singular of
  \item
    \Tur{verdik,} the past-present participle of
  \item
    \Tur{ver-,} another verb listed earlier.
\end{compactitem}

\section{Gender}

In Turkish, you can describe somebody for a long time 
without giving any clue to the sex of the person:  
there is no grammatical \textbf{gender.}  
Even accomplished Turkish speakers of English 
confuse \Eng{he} and \Eng{she.} 
In Turkish there is a unique third-person singular pronoun, 
\Tur{(o, on-),}\label{on}
meaning indifferently \Eng{he/she/it}
(as well as \Eng{that} [person or thing]).
In translations in these notes, I shall use \Eng{he} and \Eng{she} alternately;
one should remember that \emph{it} may also be an option.
(I am using a \LaTeX\ package called \url{he-she}, by Alan Munn,
which allows alternation of gender to be made automatically.)

\section{Polysyllabism and euphony}\label{sect:avrupa}

Turkish builds up long words from short meaningful units:
the language is \textbf{agglutinative} or \textbf{synthetic.}
For example (taken from \cite[\refpage10]{Rona}), 
the question
\begin{center}
  \Tur{Avrupal\i la\c
  st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i zdan m\i s\i n\i z?}  
\end{center}
is written as two words, but pronounced as 
one, and can be analyzed
as a \emph{stem} with 11 \emph{suffixes,} which I number:
\begin{center}
  \Tur{Avrupa\sufflist l\i\nsuff la\nsuff\c s\nsuff t\i
  r\nsuff ama\nsuff d\i k\nsuff lar\nsuff \i m\i z\nsuff dan\nsuff{} m\i\nsuff
s\i n\i z\nsuff?}  
\end{center}
The suffixes become mostly separate words in English, in almost reverse order:
\Eng{Are\msf{10} you\msf{11} one-of\;\msf9 those\msf7 whom\msf6 we\msf8
could-not\,\msf5 \emph{Europeanize, that is,} make\msf4
be\msf2come\msf3 Europe\msf0an\msf1?}

The numbered
correspondence between Turkish and English here
is admittedly somewhat strained.
  The interrogative particle \Tur{m\i} strictly corresponds to
  the \emph{inversion} of \Eng{you are} to form \Eng{are you.}  Also,
  one might treat \Tur{-la\c s} as an indivisible suffix.
  
Each of the suffixes above displays \textbf{vowel harmony:}\label{vh}
each of its vowels adjusts to harmonize with the preceding vowel,
as described below.
The interrogative \Tur{m\i s\i n\i z} \Eng{are you?} 
is not written as a suffix, but it still exhibits vowel harmony, 
and so it is called \textbf{enclitic.}
If we change \Eng{Europeanize} to \Eng{Turkify,} the question becomes
\begin{center}
 \Tur{T\"urkle\c stiremediklerimizden misiniz?}
\end{center}

In \Tur{Avrupal\i} \Eng{European,}
I understand the suffix \Tur{-l\i} as a specialization of \Tur{-l\#.}
The last vowel of \Tur{Avrupa} is one of the two back, unround vowels,
the other being \letter{\i},
as in Figure \ref{fig:vowels} (\page\pageref{fig:vowels});
so, when \Tur{-l\#} is attached to \Tur{Avrupa}, then \letter{\#,}
the generic close vowel,
settles down to the close vowel that is back and unround,
namely~\letter{\i}.

Likewise, the suffix \Tur{-la\c s} is a specialization of \Tur{-l@\c s,}
with a generic unround, open vowel.
Since \letter{\i} is a back vowel,
the \letter@ in \Tur{-l@\c s}
becomes the back unround, open vowel
when the suffix is added to \Tur{Avrupal\i}
\Eng{European.}

When the modern Turkish alphabet was invented, something like the
``generic'' vowels 
\letter{\#} and \letter@ could have been introduced for use in writing down
the harmonizing suffixes.  But then the Turkish alphabet would have needed
31 letters, since the distinct ``specialized'' vowels are still needed
for root-words such as the following:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{ll|ll|ll}
\Tur{an}&\Eng{moment}&\Tur{bal}&\Eng{honey}&\Tur{al-}&\Eng{take,~buy}\\
\Tur{en}&\Eng{most, -est}&\Tur{bel}&\Eng{waist}&\Tur{el}&\Eng{hand}\\
        &&\Tur{b\i ld\i rc\i n}&\Eng{quail}&\Tur{\i l\i k}&\Eng{tepid}\\ 
\Tur{in-} &\Eng{go down}&\Tur{bil-}&\Eng{know}&\Tur{il}&\Eng{province}\\
\Tur{on}&\Eng{ten}&\Tur{bol}&\Eng{ample}&\Tur{ol-}&\Eng{become}\\
\Tur{\"on}&\Eng{front}&\Tur{b\"ol-}&\Eng{divide}&\Tur{\"ol-}&\Eng{die}\\
\Tur{un}&\Eng{flour}&\Tur{bul-}&\Eng{find}&\Tur{ula\c s-}&\Eng{arrive}\\
 \Tur{\"un}&\Eng{fame}&\Tur{b\"ulb\"ul}&\Eng{nightingale}&\Tur{\"ule\c s-}&\Eng{share}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
There are also non-harmonizing suffixes.

As for consonants, they may change \textbf{voice,} 
depending on phonetic context.
In particular, some consonants oscillate within the following pairs:
\begin{center}
\Tur{t/d;\quad p/b;\quad \c c/c;\quad k/\u g.}
\end{center}

Agglutination or synthesis can be seen on signs posted everywhere.
An
\begin{example}
\Tur{indirim (in\sufflist dir\nsuff im\nsuff)} 
\end{example}
is an instance\msf2 of
causing\msf1 to go-down\msf0, that is, a reduction, a \emph{sale};
you will see the word in shop-windows.
From the same root,
\begin{example}
\Tur{inilir (in\sufflist il\nsuff ir\nsuff)} 
\end{example}
means \Eng{it-is\msf2 got\msf1
  down-from\msf0, it is an exit}:
the word may be written at the rear door of city busses,
warning you not to enter there.
(Instead of a finite verb,
\Tur{inilir} can be understood 
as an \emph{aorist participle,}
meaning a thing \Eng{descended from,}
as on \page\pageref{aor}.)

As the last two examples suggest, not only can one word feature
more than one suffix, but many different words can be formed
from one root.  
From the root \Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die} 
spring the following words.\label{ol}
(The dots indicate syllable divisions and,
like the hyphens on verb stems, are not part of normal spelling.)
  \begin{multicols}{2}
\noindent
%\Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur-} \Eng{kill}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md en} \Eng{killer}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md esiye} \Eng{murderously}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md men} \Eng{executioner}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md men\md lik} \Eng{(\hisher post)}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md t-} \Eng{have} (someone) \Eng{killed}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"uc\"u} \Eng{deadly, fatal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"ul-} \Eng{be killed}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"ul\md en} \mbox{\Eng{murder victim}}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md esiye} \Eng{to death}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md et} (provincial) \Eng{plague}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md eyaz-} \Eng{almost die}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md g\"un} \Eng{lifeless, withered}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md g\"un\md l\"uk} \Eng{lifelessness}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez} \Eng{immortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez\md le\c s\md tir-} \mbox{\Eng{immortalize}}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez\md lik} \Eng{immortality}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md m\"u\c s} \Eng{dead}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"u} \Eng{corpse}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"uk} \Eng{deathly looking}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"u\md l\"uk} \Eng{morgue}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um} \Eng{death}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md c\"ul} \Eng{mortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"u} \Eng{transitory}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"uk} \Eng{burial money}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"u\md l\"uk} \Eng{mortality}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"u} \Eng{deathlike}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"uz} \Eng{immortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"uz\md l\"uk} \mbox{\Eng{immortality}}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md \"un-} (see below).
  \end{multicols}
  Actually the words
\Tur{\"old\"urmen, \"old\"urmenlik,}
and \Tur{\"ol\md\"ul\"uk}
are disused neologisms for \Tur{cell\^at, cell\^atl\i k,}
  and \Tur{morg.}
  The verb \Tur{\"ol\"un-} would be \emph{passive,}
  if \Tur{\"ol-} were transitive;
  it is instransitive, so
  \Tur{\"ol\md\"un-} must be \emph{impersonal,}
  referring to the dying
  of some generic person;
  see Chapter \ref{ch:conj} and \S~\ref{sect:say}.

\section{Some common suffixes}\label{sect:suffixes}

The following suffixes are used all the time.
Three of them have already been seen
among the words derived from \Tur{\"ol-} in the previous section.
The meanings of the root-words in the examples below are probably
obvious, but they are given later in the Dictionary
(\Chapter\ref{ch:dict}, \page\pageref{ch:dict}): 
\begin{description}
\item[\Tur{-c\#}] \Eng{person involved with}:\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl}
    \Tur{kebap\c c\i}&\Eng{kebab-seller,}\\
  \Tur{kilit\c ci}&\Eng{locksmith,}\\
  \Tur{bal\i k\c c\i}&\Eng{fishmonger,}\\
  \Tur{dedikoducu}&\Eng{rumor-monger,}\\
  \Tur{ga\-zeteci}&\Eng{journalist or news\-agent.}
  \end{tabular}
\item[\Tur{-c@}] \Eng{language of}:\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl}
    \Tur{T\"urk\c ce}&\Eng{Turkish} (the language of the Turks),\\
    \Tur{K\"urt\c ce}&\Eng{Kurdish,}\\
    \Tur{Ermenice}&\Eng{Armenian,}\\
    \Tur{\.Ibranice}&\Eng{Hebrew,}\\
    \Tur{Yunanca}&\Eng{Greek,}\\
    \Tur{Hollandaca}&\Eng{Dutch.}
  \end{tabular}

\item[\Tur{-l\#/-s\#z}]\label{li} \Eng{including/excluding}\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl}
    \Tur{s\"utl\"u/s\"uts\"uz}&\Eng{with/without milk,}\\
\Tur{\c se\-kerli/\c sekersiz}&\Eng{sweetened/sugar-free,}\\
\Tur{etli/etsiz}&\Eng{containing meat/meatless};\\
\Tur{Hollandal\i}&\Eng{Dutch (person),}\\
  \Tur{k\"oyl\"u}&\Eng{villager,}\\
  \Tur{sar\i l\i}&\Eng{(person) dressed in yellow.}
  \end{tabular}\\
  Somebody who does not wish to confuse ethnicity
  with nationality will refer to a citizen of Turkey as
  \Tur{T\"urkiyeli} rather than the usual \Tur{T\"urk.}

\item[\Tur{-l\#k}] \Eng{container of, pertaining to}:\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl}
    \Tur{tuzluk}&\Eng{salt cellar,}\\
    \Tur{kimlik}&\Eng{identity,}\\
    \Tur{kitapl\i k}&\Eng{bookcase,}\\  
\Tur{g\"unl\"uk}&\Eng{daily, diary,}\\
\Tur{gecelik}&\Eng{nightly, nightgown.}
  \end{tabular}

\item[\Tur{-da\c s}] \Eng{mate}:
  \begin{tabular}[t]{rl}
\Tur{yol/yolda\c s}&\Eng{road/comrade,}\\ 
\Tur{\c ca\u g/\c ca\u gda\c s}&\Eng{era/contemporary,}\\
\Tur{meslek/meslekta\c s}&\Eng{profession/colleague,}\\
\Tur{kar\i n/karde\c s}&\Eng{belly/sibling,}\\
    \Tur{arka/arkada\c s}&\Eng{back/friend.}
  \end{tabular}\\
``I am one, sir, that comes to tell you
    your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two
    backs'': thus Iago in Shakespeare's \emph{Othello.}
    In Turkish, a
    friend is not necessarily a lover, but is rather somebody with
    whom you would
    stand back to back while fending off the enemy.
    Oddly, there is no vowel harmony in \Tur{meslekta\c s} or \Tur{karde\c s.}
    
\item[\Tur{-l@}] (makes verbs from nouns and adjectives):\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl}
    \Tur{ba\c sla-}&\Eng{make a head (begin),}\\
\Tur{kilitle-}&\Eng{make locked (lock),}\\
\Tur{temizle-}&\Eng{make clean (clean),}\\ 
\Tur{k\"opekle-}&\Eng{make like a dog (cringe or dog-paddle).}
  \end{tabular}\\
The last example is in \cite[XIV.22, \refpage227]{Lewis2}
with English meaning \Eng{cringe} only.

\item[\Tur{-l@r}]\label{lar} \Eng{more than one of.}
  This is not normally used if a definite number is named:\vphantom p\\
  \begin{tabular}{rl|rl}
    \Tur{ba\c slar}&\Eng{heads,}&
    \Tur{be\c s ba\c s}&\Eng{five head,}\\
\Tur{ki\c siler}&\Eng{people,}&
\Tur{on iki ki\c si}&\Eng{twelve person.}
  \end{tabular}
  
\item[\Tur{-\#nc\#}] \Eng{-th}:
  \begin{tabular}[t]{rl}
    \Tur{1., birinci}&\Eng{first, 1st,}\\ 
    \Tur{2., ikinci}&\Eng{second, 2nd,}\\ 
    \Tur{3., \"u\c c\"unc\"u}&\Eng{third, 3rd,}\\ 
\Tur{ka\c c\i nc\i}&\Eng{in which place (``how manyeth'')?}\\
\Tur{sonuncu}&\Eng{last.}
  \end{tabular}
\end{description}
Two more suffixes are used with numbers, like \Tur{-\#nc\#,}
though they are not so common as this:
\begin{description}
\item[\Tur{-(\c s)@r}] \Eng{(of, for) each}:
  \begin{tabular}[t]{rl}
    \Tur{Birer}&\Eng{one each,}\\
    \Tur{iki\c ser}&\Eng{two each,}\\
    \Tur{ka\c car?}&\Eng{how many (much) each?}
  \end{tabular}
  
\item[\Tur{-(\#)z}] from a multiple birth:
  \begin{tabular}[t]{rl}
    \Tur{\.Ikiz}&\Eng{twin(s),}\\
    \Tur{\"u\c c\"uz}&\Eng{triplet(s).}
  \end{tabular}
\end{description}

\section{More Suffixes}\label{sect:suf}

Turkish grammarians distinguish between 
\textbf{constructive} and \textbf{inflexional} suffixes
(\Tur{yap\i m ekleri} and \Tur{\c cekim ekleri}
\cite[\refpage131]{Ozkirimli}).
Words with inflexional suffixes do not appear in the dictionary; 
words with constructive suffixes (usually) do. 
Of the common suffixes listed in the previous section,
\Tur{-l@r} is inflexional,
and \Tur{-c@} may be so (see \page\pageref{ce}).   

There are several series of \textbf{personal} inflexional suffixes;
they are in Figure~\ref{table:person},
with the personal pronouns for comparison.
\begin{figure}
\centering
\begin{sideways}\relscale{1.1}
  \renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.6}
%  \makebox[0pt][c]{
    \begin{tabular}{|r|r|r|r|r|r|}\hline
      person: &\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{1st}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{2nd}&3rd\\\hline
      number: & sing. & pl. & sing. & pl. & \\\hline\hline
      pronoun & \Tur{ben} & \Tur{biz} & \Tur{sen} & \Tur{siz} & \Tur{o, on-}
      \\\hline\hline
      possession & \Tur{-(\#)m}& \Tur{-(\#)m\#z} & \Tur{-(\#)n} &
      \Tur{-(\#)n\#z}& \Tur{-(s)\#}\\\hline 
      predicative & \Tur{-(y)\#m} & \Tur{-(y)\#z} & \Tur{-s\#n}
      & \Tur{-s\#n\#z} & -\\\hline
      verbal & \Tur{-m} & \Tur{-k} & \Tur{-n} & \Tur{-n\#z} &
      -\\\hline
      subjunctive & \Tur{-(y)@y\#m} & \Tur{-(y)@l\#m} & \Tur{-(y)@s\#n}
      & \Tur{-(y)@s\#n\#z} & \Tur{-@} \\\hline
      imperative & & & - & \Tur{-(y)\#n(\#z)} & \Tur{-s\#n} \\\hline
    \end{tabular}
%  }
\end{sideways}

\caption{Personal pronouns and suffixes}\label{table:person}
\end{figure}
The \textbf{plural} ending \Tur{-l@r} (\page\pageref{lar})
combines with the third-person forms listed in the last column to make 
\begin{center}\label{onlar}
\Tur{onlar,\quad \mbox{-l@r\#},\quad -l@r,\quad -l@r,\quad -@l@r,\quad -s\#nl@r,}
\end{center}
respectively;
but the distinct plural forms of the third-person endings 
are not always used.

The four series of suffixes in the last four rows of the table 
do not seem to be given names elsewhere.
Neither have I seen them
gathered together with the possession suffixes and the pronouns in this way.
For example, Lewis \cite{Lewis2} has the pronouns on his page 64,
the possession suffixes (which he calls personal suffixes) on his page 37,
and the remaining suffixes on his pages 105--6,
where they are simply said to be of Types I, II, III, and IV, respectively.
The corresponding page numbers for \"Ozk\i r\i ml\i\ \cite{Ozkirimli} 
are 211, 158, and 162; he does use the term \emph{possession suffix} 
(\Tur{iyelik eki}), but numbers the other suffixes 1--4.

Second-person plural forms are used politely to address individuals, 
as in French.  
In examples below, 
I use the archaic English second-person singular forms---%
\Eng{thou, thee,} \&c.---%
to translate the corresponding Turkish singular forms.

A \textbf{suffix of possession} attaches to a noun to show the person of the \emph{possessor of} the named entity: 
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{lllll}
    \Tur{kitab\i m}
&\Tur{kitab\i m\i z}
&\Tur{kitab\i n}
&\Tur{kitab\i n\i z}
&\Tur{kitab\i}\\
\Eng{my book}&\Eng{our book}&\Eng{thy book}&\Eng{your book}&\Eng{\hisher book}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
A possession suffix does \emph{not} indicate
that an entity is a possessor of something else:
this job would be done by the \emph{possessive case-ending}
(\page\pageref{ch:nouns}). 

A \textbf{predicative suffix} can make a complete sentence: it turns an
expression into a predicate whose subject is the person indicated:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{*5{p{17.5mm}}}
    \Tur{kitab\i m}
&\Tur{kitab\i z}
&\Tur{kitaps\i n}
&\Tur{kitaps\i n\i z}
&\Tur{kitap}\\
\raggedright\Eng{I am a book}&
\raggedright\Eng{we are a book}&
\raggedright\Eng{thou art a book}&
\raggedright\Eng{you are a book}&
\raggedright\Eng{\heshe is a book}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
While the example of \Tur{kitab\i m} is ambiguous,
being either a noun or a sentence, 
examples with nouns ending in vowels are not ambiguous:
\begin{example}
 \Tur{a\u gam} \Eng{my lord};
\Tur{a\u gay\i m} \Eng{I am lord.}
\end{example}
\Tur{Su} \Eng{water} is an exception, its possessed forms being
\begin{example}
  \Tur{suyum, suyumuz, suyun, suyunuz, suyu,}
\end{example}
although \Tur{suyum} can also mean \Eng{I am water.}

The ending \Tur{-d\#r} is also
predicative
(it derives from an ancient verb-form
  meaning \Eng{\heshe stands} \cite[VIII, 3, \refpage93]{Lewis2}):
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Abbas yolcu} \Eng{Abbas the traveller};\\
\Tur{Yolcudur Abbas} \Eng{Abbas is a traveller.}
\end{example}
Here \Tur{Abbas yolcu} is a proverbial name for a traveller:
see \ref{Abbas}, \page\pageref{Abbas}.
See \S\ref{sect:two}, \page\pageref{sect:two},
for the interaction of the plural ending \Tur{-l@r}
with the possession suffixes, the predicative suffixes, and \Tur{-d\#r.}

Predicative suffixes are also used with some verb-forms.
The remaining personal suffixes in Figure \ref{table:person}
are used \emph{only} with verb-forms.
See \Chapter\ref{ch:conj}, \page\pageref{ch:conj}.

Nouns are \textbf{declined,} roughly as in Latin: 
they take the \textbf{case}-endings discussed in \Chapter\ref{ch:nouns}, 
\page\pageref{ch:nouns}.  
However, a big difference from Latin 
is that Turkish \emph{adjectives} are \emph{not} inflected 
to ``agree'' in any way with the nouns that they modify.  
Thus, Turkish adjectives as such are indeclinable.
The native English speaker may have a jolt\label{jolt}
upon realizing that, when used as an adjective,
the Turkish \Tur{bu} (\pages\pageref{o/bu} and \pageref{bu})
is translated by either \Eng{this} or \Eng{these,}
depending on the number of the associated noun.

\Eng{These} as a noun is in Turkish \Tur{bunlar.}
In the same way, other Turkish adjectives may be used as nouns,
in which case they are declinable, like every noun.

\textbf{Comparison} of adjectives is achieved 
with the particles \Tur{daha, en,} and \Tur{az} given above 
on \page\pageref{daha}; these precede adjectives.

\section{Word order}

In a Turkish sentence,
the modifier \emph{usually} comes before the modified.  This means:
\begin{compactitem}
  \item
adjective (used attributively) precedes noun;
\item
adverb precedes verb;
\item
object of postposition precedes postposition.
\end{compactitem}
In a sentence, 
\begin{compactitem}
  \item
subject precedes predicate;
\item
objects precede verb;
\item
indirect object precedes direct object.
\end{compactitem}
These are not absolute rules;
see for example the sayings numbered \ref{balci} and \ref{Abbas} 
in \S~\ref{sect:say} (\page\pageref{sect:say}).

\chapter{Ancillary parts of speech}\label{ch:parts}

Besides nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns, Turkish has adverbs,
conjunctions, particles, and interjections.
Such at least are the approximate English names
for the Turkish parts of speech listed in Figure \ref{fig:parts}.
\begin{figure}
  \centering
  \begin{tabular}{lll}
    Ottoman&modern&English\\\hline
\Tur{isim}   &\Tur{ad}          &\Eng{noun}\\
\Tur{s\i fat}&\Tur{\"onad}      &\Eng{adjective}\\
\Tur{zarf}   &\Tur{belirte\c c} &\Eng{adverb}\\
\Tur{zamir}  &\Tur{ad\i l}      &\Eng{pronoun}\\
\Tur{edat}   &\Tur{ilge\c c}    &\Eng{particle}\\
\Tur{rab\i t}&\Tur{ba\u gla\c c}&\Eng{conjunction}\\
\Tur{nida}   &\Tur{\"unlem}     &\Eng{interjection}\\
\Tur{f\/iil} &\Tur{eylem}       &\Eng{verb}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Parts of speech}\label{fig:parts}
  
\end{figure}
Atabay \emph{et al.}\ \cite{Atabay} use the terms
\Tur{ad, s\i fat, belirte\c c, ad\i l, ilge\c c, ba\u gla\c c, \"unlem,}
and \Tur{eylem,} but give the Ottoman terms \Tur{zarf, edat, rab\i t,}
and \Tur{nida} in footnotes.
\"Ozk\i r\i ml\i\ \cite{Ozkirimli} gives both modern and Ottoman terms,
except \Tur{rab\i t} and \Tur{nida.}
Redhouse \cite{Redhouse} says \Eng{conjunction} is not simply \Tur{rab\i t,}
but \Tur{rab\i t edat\i,} \emph{i.e.}\ \Eng{conjoining particle.}

\section{Conjunctions}

Some Turkish \textbf{conjunctions} are given in Fig.~\ref{fig:conjunct},
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
  \begin{tabular}{|c|l|l|}\hline
$\lnot A$  & \Tur{$A$ de\u gil} & \Eng{not $A$}\\\hline
$A\land B$ & $A$ \Tur{ve} $B$ & $A$ \Eng{and} $B$\\
           & $A$ \Tur{ile} $B$ &\\\cline{2-3}
           & \Tur{$A$; $B$ de} & $A$; $B$ \Eng{too}\\\cline{2-3}
& $A$ \Tur{ama} $B$ & $A$ \Eng{but} $B$\\
& $A$ \Tur{fakat} $B$ &\\
& $A$ \Tur{ancak} $B$ &\\\cline{2-3}
& \Tur{hem} $A$ \Tur{hem} $B$ & \Eng{both $A$ and $B$}\\\hline
$A\lor B$ & $A$ \Tur{veya} $B$ & \Eng{$A$ or $B$}\\
          & \Tur{$A$ ya da $B$} &\\\cline{2-3}
&\Tur{ya $A$ ya $B$} & \Eng{either $A$ or $B$}\\\hline
$\lnot A\land\lnot B$ & \Tur{ne $A$ ne $B$} & \Eng{neither $A$ nor
           $B$}\\\hline
$A\to B$ & \Tur{(e\u ger) $A$ ise (o zaman) $B$} 
& \Eng{if $A$ (then) $B$}\\\hline
$A\leftrightarrow B$ & \Tur{$A$ ancak ve ancak $B$} & \Eng{$A$ if and
      only if $B$}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Connectives and conjunctions}\label{fig:conjunct}
\end{figure}
along with the Boolean connectives used to symbolize them.
(My main source for propositional logic in Turkish is Nesin 
\cite{Nesin}.)
In the table, \Tur{de} and \Tur{da} are specializations 
of the enclitic \Tur{d@;} 
for \Tur{ise,} see \Chapter\ref{ch:conj}, \page\pageref{ch:conj}.

\section{Interjections}

To Turkish \textbf{interjections,}
G\"oksel and Kerslake devote a short paragraph
\cite[7.1.5, \refpage51]{Goksel-Kerslake};
Lewis \cite{Lewis2} remarks on individual examples at five places.
The enormous \emph{Cambridge Grammar of the English Language} \cite{CGEL},
weighing in at 1842 pages, spends one paragraph on English interjections.
But Atabay \emph{et al.}\ \cite{Atabay} 
devote almost ten percent of their book to Turkish interjections, 
mostly by giving literary examples of about forty of them.
Those that seem most common in my experience are as follows,
with some possible translations of some instances of their use:
\begin{multicols}{2}
\begin{compactdesc}
  \item[E] \Eng{What's this all about?}
\item[Eh] \Eng{So-so}
\item[Ay] \Eng{Ouch}
\item[Of] \Eng{I'm fed up}
\item[Tu] \Eng{That's too bad}
\item[Aman]  \Eng{That's terrible}
\item[Eyvah]  \Eng{Oh no}
\item[Haydi]  \Eng{Come on, let's go}
\item[Bravo]  \Eng{Bravo}
\item[Yaz\i k]  \Eng{What a shame}
\item[Yahu] \Eng{Look here now}
\item[Ya\c sa]  \Eng{All right, excellent}
\end{compactdesc}
\end{multicols}

\section{Particles}

Among the \textbf{particles} may be listed the \textbf{postpositions,}
which are somewhat like prepositions in English.
Some common examples are in Figure \ref{fig:post}.
\begin{figure}
  \centering
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.3}
  \begin{tabular}{lll}
&&case of object\\\hline
  \Tur{gibi} &\Eng{like}&possessive or bare\\ 
  \Tur{kadar} &\Eng{as far as}&dative\\ 
  \Tur{do\u gru} &\Eng{towards}&dative\\
  \Tur{dolay\i} &\Eng{because of}&ablative\\
  \Tur{g\"ore} &\Eng{according to}&dative\\ 
  \Tur{i\c cin} &\Eng{for}&possessive or bare\\ 
\Tur{ile} &\Eng{with}&possessive or bare\\\hline    
  \end{tabular}
  \caption{Postpositions}\label{fig:post}
  
\end{figure}
They follow their objects instead of preceding them, 
but they still do work that might otherwise be done with \emph{cases,}
such as are given in \Chapter\ref{ch:nouns}, \page\pageref{ch:nouns}.
Like the object of a Greek or Latin preposition,
the object of a Turkish postposition may itself be a case of a noun.

The objects of \Tur{gibi, i\c cin,} and \Tur{ile}\label{onun}
are possessive when they are pronouns,
bare when they are nouns.
Also, \Tur{ile} can also be suffixed as \Tur{-l@}
and understood as a case-ending; see \page\pageref{la}:
\begin{example}
\Tur{onun gibi} \Eng{like \himher,}\\
\Tur{ya\u gmur ya\u gacak gibi g\"or\"un\"uyor}
\Eng{it looks like it will rain,}\\
\Tur{benim i\c cin} \Eng{for me,} \Tur{T\"urkiye i\c cin} \Eng{for Turkey,}\\
\Tur{sizin ile, sizinle} \Eng{with you.}
\end{example}
A difference from Greek and Latin (and for that matter English) 
is that some Turkish postpositions themselves may take personal suffixes:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{gibisi yok} \Eng{\heshe has no peer.}
  %there's nothing (nobody) like it (\himher), \heshe has no like.}
\end{example}
This shows that the classification of words like \Tur{gibi}
as postpositions is inadequate.
In the \emph{Concise Oxford Turkish Dictionary,}
Alderson and \.Iz define \Tur{gibi} as 
\Eng{The similar; the like.  Similar, like.
As; as soon as; just as; as though} \cite[\refpage113]{AI}.  
In an article all about \Tur{gibi,}
Van Schaaik interprets the definition just given
as meaning that \Tur{gibi} is a noun, 
postposition, or conjunction \cite[\refpage1]{van-Schaaik};
he himself argues that \Tur{gibi} should be understood as a \emph{predicate.}

\chapter{Inflexion of nouns}\label{ch:nouns}

A Turkish noun can take inflexional endings, 
usually in the following order:
\begin{enumerate}[1)]
  \item
the {plural} ending, \Tur{-l@r} (\page\pageref{lar});
\item
a possession suffix (\S~\ref{sect:suf}, \page\pageref{sect:suf});
\item
a {case-}ending (below);
\item
a predicative suffix (\S~\ref{sect:suf}, \page\pageref{sect:suf}).
\end{enumerate}

\section{Declension}\label{sect:declension}

The \textbf{cases} of Turkish nouns
that do \emph{not} have the third-person possession suffix \Tur{-(s)\#}
are as follows.\label{cases}
\begin{description}
  \item[1. Bare.]
The dictionary-form of a noun, 
used for subjects and \emph{indefinite} direct objects.
\item[2. Clarifying.]
In \Tur{(y)\#,}
for \emph{definite} direct objects.
\item[3. Dative.] 
In \Tur{-(y)@,} for indirect objects.
\item[4. Ablative.] 
In \Tur{-d@n,} for that \emph{from which.} 
\item[5. Locative.] 
In \Tur{-d@,} for \emph{place where.}
\item[6. Possessive.]
In \Tur{-(n)\#n.} 
\item[7. Relative.]
In \Tur{-c@,}\label{ce} 
with meanings like \Eng{according to} or \Eng{in the manner of;} 
one use was given in \S~\ref{sect:suffixes}, \page\pageref{sect:suffixes}.
\item[8. Instrumental.] 
In \Tur{-(\#)n,} this case is obsolescent,
but can be seen in examples like 
\Tur{yaz\md\i n} \Eng{during the summer} \cite[\refpage20]{Lewis2}
and the neologism 
\Tur{\"orne\u g\md in} \Eng{for example} \cite[\refpage195]{Lewis2}.
The instrumental sense is achieved now 
with the postposition \Tur{ile} \Eng{with,} 
which can be suffixed as \Tur{-l@}.\label{la}
\end{description}
For example:
  \begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler g\"uzel\md dir} 
\Eng{Roses are beautiful.}\\
\Tur{Bana bir g\"ul al} 
\Eng{Buy me a rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"u koparmay\i n}
\Eng{Don't pick the rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md e/g\"ul\md den/g\"ul\md de} 
\Eng{to/from/on a rose} or \Eng{the rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"un diken\md i}
\Eng{Rose's thorn.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul'ce} \Eng{according to G\"ul;} \Tur{\c cocuk\c ca}
\Eng{childishly} or \Eng{baby-talk.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul'le Ay\c se}
\Eng{Ay\c se and G\"ul;}
\Tur{b\i\c cak\md la kes-} \Eng{cut with a knife.}
  \end{example}
The third-person possession suffix \Tur{-(s)\#}
is followed by \Tur{-n} before the case-endings are added,
except for \Tur{ile}:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{g\"ul\"un\"u, 
g\"ul\"une, 
g\"ul\"unden, 
g\"ul\"unde, 
g\"ul\"un\"un, 
g\"ul\"unce,
g\"ul\"uyle.}
\end{example}
The singular personal pronouns from Figure \ref{table:person} 
are declined as follows:
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{@{}*8c@{}}
    1&2&3&4&5&6&7&8\\\hline
    \Tur{ben}&
    \Tur{beni}&
    \Tur{bana}&
    \Tur{benden}&
    \Tur{bende}&
    \Tur{benim}&
    \Tur{bence}&
    \Tur{benimle}\\
    \Tur{sen}&
    \Tur{seni}&
    \Tur{sana}&
    \Tur{senden}&
    \Tur{sende}&
    \Tur{senin}&
    \Tur{sence}&
    \Tur{seninle}\\
    \Tur{o}&
    \Tur{onu}&
    \Tur{ona}&
    \Tur{ondan}&
    \Tur{onda}&
    \Tur{onun}&
    \Tur{onca}&
    \Tur{onunla}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
Concerning \Tur{ben} and \Tur{sen,} note that
\begin{compactitem}
  \item
they show a vowel change in the dative;
\item
their possessive forms take the corresponding 
\emph{possession} suffixes from Table \ref{table:person}
(although the second-person singular possession suffix
is the same as the possessive suffix anyway);
\item
the postposition \Tur{ile} is suffixed to the possessive forms,
as in the rule given on \page\pageref{onun}.
\end{compactitem}
The Turkish term for \Eng{case} is \Tur{dur\md um} 
\Eng{state of affairs.}
Turkish names for the cases are
\begin{inparaenum}[(1)]
  \item
\Tur{yal\i n durum,} then 
\item
  \Tur{belirtme,}
\item
  \Tur{y\"onelme,}
\item
  \Tur{bulunma,}
\item
  \Tur{\c c\i kma,}
\item
  \Tur{tamlayan,}
\item
  \Tur{benzerlik durumu,} 
  then
\item
  \Tur{ara\c cl\i\ durum} \cite[\refpage155]{Ozkirimli};
\end{inparaenum}
but some variation is possible.
Atabay \emph{et al.}\ \cite[\refpage35]{Atabay} give also the Latin terms
\begin{inparaenum}[(1)]
  \item
    \emph{nominativus,}
  \item \emph{accusativus,}
  \item \emph{dativus,}
  \item \emph{locativus,}
  \item \emph{ablativus,}
  \item \emph{determinativus,} 
    and
  \item
    \emph{aequativus}
\end{inparaenum}
for the first seven;
they do not give \"Ozk\i r\i ml\i's eighth case.
Grammarians Demir \cite[\refpage120]{Demir}
and Lewis \cite[\refpage194]{Lewis2} 
do not recognize the seventh case as such.



\section{Demonstratives}

The third-person pronoun \Tur{o/on-} 
is also the demonstrative adjective \Eng{that,}
as indicated on \page\pageref{o/bu};
other demonstratives are
\begin{description}
  \item[bu/bun-]\label{bu} \Eng{this/these}
\item[\c su/\c sun-] (for the thing pointed to).
\end{description}
See also \page\pageref{jolt}.

\section{Two kinds of person}\label{sect:two}

Nouns can indicate \emph{person} in two senses:

1.
A possession suffix shows the person of a possessor of the named entity.
\begin{example}
\Tur{g\"ul\md\"um/g\"ul\md\"um\"uz/g\"ul\md\"un/g\"ul\md\"un\"uz}
  \Eng{my/our/thy/your rose;}\\ 
\Tur{g\"ul\md\"u/Deniz'in g\"ul\md\"u} \Eng{\hisher rose/Deniz's rose.}
\end{example}

2. A predicative suffix shows the person of the entity itself. 
\begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"um/G\"ul\md\"uz/G\"ul\md s\"un/G\"ul\md s\"un\"uz}\\
%\Eng{I/We/Thou/You are a rose.}\\ 
\Eng{I am/We are/Thou art/You are a rose.}\\
\end{example}

Recall from \page\pageref{onlar} that the plural suffix \Tur{-l@r}
combines with
\begin{enumerate}[1)]
\item
  the third-person possession suffix \Tur{-(s)\#} to make \Tur{-l@r\#},
\item
the third-person predicative suffix (which is empty) to make \Tur{-l@r.}
\end{enumerate}
Thus the plural ending \Tur{-l@r} can show multiplicity 
of three different things:
\begin{enumerate}[1)]
  \item
the entity itself: 
\begin{example}
\Tur{g\"ul\md ler} \Eng{roses},\qquad
\Tur{g\"ul\md ler\md i} \Eng{\hisher roses};
\end{example}
\item
its (third-person) possessor: 
\begin{example}
\Tur{g\"ul\md ler\md i} \Eng{their rose};
\end{example}
\item
the (third-person) subject of which the entity is predicated:
\begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler} \Eng{They are roses.}
\end{example}
\end{enumerate}
The plural ending will not be repeated.  Thus also:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{g\"ul\md ler\md i} \Eng{their roses.}
\end{example}
Whether \Tur{-l@r} denotes plurality of subject or predicate
can be indicated by use of \Tur{-d@r}:
\begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul\md d\"ur\md ler}
\Eng{They are roses}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler\md dir}
\Eng{They are the roses.}
\end{example}
The four kinds of noun suffixes are used in order in:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{G\"ul\md ler\md im\md de\md siniz} \Eng{You are in my roses.}\\
%\Tur{Kendi\md m en k\"ot\"u d\"u\c sman\md \i m\md\i m\md d\i r}
%\Eng{I am my own worst enemy.}  
\end{example}

\section{Negation}

A sentence made from a noun with a predicative ending is
negated with \Tur{de\u gil;} the predicative ending is
added to this: 
\begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul de\u gil\md im}
  \Eng{I am not a rose, I am not Rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler\md im\md de de\u gil\md siniz} \Eng{You are not in my roses.}
\end{example}

\section{Annexation}

When two nouns are joined, even though the first does not name a
possessor of the second, the second tends to take the third-person
suffix of possession: 
\begin{example}
\Tur{b\"ol\md\"um} \Eng{department;}\\
\Tur{matematik b\"ol\md\"um\md\"u} 
\Eng{mathematics department.}  
\end{example}
You can see this feature in many names of things:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{\.I\c s Banka\md s\i} \Eng{Business Bank;}\\
\Tur{Tekirda\u g rak\i\md s\i} \Eng{Tekirda\u g [brand] rak\i;}\\
\Tur{Eski \.Imaret Camii} \Eng{Old Soup-kitchen Mosque.}
\end{example}
The last is a little mosque in Istanbul, off the tourist trail,
built in the 11th century
as the Church of St Savior Pantepoptes \cite[\refpage220]{Boyd-Freely}.
Note that \Tur{cami} is usually construed, as here,
as ending in a consonant,
albeit a consonant not shown in spelling: the \emph{glottal stop}
\cite[\refpages7, 31]{Lewis2}.
Thus we usually have \Tur{camii} rather than \Tur{camisi.}

One does sometimes see \Tur{camisi} instead \Tur{camii,}
as for example in G\"unay's
\emph{Guide to the Works of {S}inan the {A}rchitect in {I}stanbul}
\cite{Gunay-sinan}.
The English \Eng{mosque} shares its ultimate Arabic origin 
with the Turkish \Tur{mescit} \Eng{small mosque} \cite{CODoEE,Nis-Et},
while \Tur{cami} is related, through its Arabic source,
to \Tur{Cuma} \Eng{Friday.}
Thus a \Tur{cami} would appear to be, strictly, a Friday mosque,
a mosque where communal Friday prayers are made.
This is made explicit in Iran,
where a grand mosque may be called \emph{Masjed-e Jameh,}
\Eng{Mosque of Friday};
the Turkish would be \Tur{Cuma Mescidi.}
Thus Persian and Turkish alike join nouns 
by adding an ending to the noun being qualified; 
but then they write the nouns in opposite order.
The Persian construction was nonetheless used in Ottoman Turkish
and can still be seen in some names, as of the
\Tur{Abide-i H\"urriyet} \Eng{Monument of Liberty} in \c Si\c sli, Istanbul,
and of the road that runs south from it, \Tur{Abide-i H\"urriyet Cadde\md si.}
The monument commemorates the Constitutional Revolution of 1908
\cite[\refpage93]{Zurcher} and is normally closed to visitors,
though I was invited in by the caretaker when I walked up to the gate.
It memorializes a progressive development in Turkey
that predated Atat\"urk's rise;
but it also contains the last remains of two of the instigators 
of the Armenian Genocide of 1915, namely Enver and Tal\^at.

On the principles that we are now considering,
the modern form of the name of\Tur{Abide-i H\"urriyet}
would be \Tur{h\"urriyet an\md\i t\md\i}
or even \Tur{\"ozg\"ur\md l\"uk an\i t\i.}
If the second noun in each combination were made plural,
the plural ending would precede the suffix of possession, as before:  
\begin{example}
  \Tur{deniz ana\md s\i, deniz ana\md lar\md\i}
\Eng{jellyfish,} literally \Eng{sea mother(s)}.
\end{example}
If the two nouns are written as one word,
they may or may not still be treated grammatically as two:
\begin{example}
\Tur{ata\md s\"oz\md\"u} \Eng{father saying (proverb)},
\Tur{ata\md s\"oz\md ler\md i} \Eng{proverbs};\\
  \Tur{ayak\md kab\md\i} \Eng{foot container (shoe)},
\Tur{ayak\md kab\md\i\md lar} \Eng{shoes.}
\end{example}
The word \Tur{atas\"ozleri} appears in the titles of the sources
\cite{Karaca-atasoz,Ozdemir,Turkhan}
for \S~\ref{sect:say}, \page\pageref{sect:say}.

The possession suffix is not normally repeated:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{T\"urk s\"oz\"u, T\"urk atas\"oz\"u}
\Eng{Turkish saying, Turkish proverb.}
\end{example}
From \Tur{do\u g\md um g\"un\md\"u} \Eng{birthday}
I have seen the formation \Tur{Nida'nin do\u gum g\"un\"us\"u}
\Eng{Nida's birthday}
as a grafitto near the S\"uleymaniye Camii in Istanbul:
the correct form is supposed to be
\Tur{Nida'nin do\u gum g\"un\"u.}

Sometimes two bare nouns are combined without change:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{mercimek \c corbas\i} or \Tur{mercimek \c corba} \Eng{lentil soup.}
\end{example}


\chapter{Conjugation of verbs}\label{ch:conj}

\section[Possession and Existence]{Possession and Existence%(To have and to be)
}

There is no Turkish verb corresponding to the English \Eng{have.}
Possession is normally indicated by suffixes of possession 
(\S~\ref{sect:suf}, \page\pageref{sect:suf}).  
The \emph{existence} of possession,
or of anything else,
is expressed by the predicative adjective \Tur{var;} 
non-existence is expressed by \Tur{yok.} 
\begin{example}
 \Tur{G\"ul\md\"um var} \Eng{My rose exists; I have got a rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"um yok} \Eng{I have not got a rose.}
\end{example}
One can also express ownership by means of the noun \Tur{sahip} \Eng{owner,}
or else the postposition \Tur{ait} \Eng{belonging to,}
which follows nouns in the dative case:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{G\"ul bana aittir} \Eng{The Rose belongs to me.}\\
  \Tur{G\"ul\"un sahibi benim} \Eng{I am the owner of the rose.}
\end{example}

\section{Verbal nouns}

The dictionary-form of a verb is usually the \textbf{infinitive,}
ending in \Tur{-m@k;}
remove this ending, and you have a \emph{stem.}  
However, not every stem is found in this way;
some stems are further analyzable,
and they might not be found as part of a dictionary form.
We shall consider these in the next section.
Meanwhile, there are (at least) two more kinds of verbal noun that 
may be in the dictionary,
with endings
\begin{description}
\item[-m@] resembling the \Eng{-ing} of the English \textbf{gerund,} and
\item[-(y)\#\c s] indicating manner.
\end{description}
So we have
\begin{example}
  \Tur{okumak/okuma/okuyu\c s}
  \Eng{to read} / \Eng{reading} / \Eng{way of reading.}
\end{example}
(See also saying \ref{yigit} on \page\pageref{yigit}.)
The common stem in the examples is \Tur{oku-.}  This is the
dictionary-form in one dictionary \cite{Redhouse}, and I wish it were
so in all dictionaries, since then simple verbs would always come
before those obtained from them by means of constructive suffixes
(\S~\ref{sect:suf}, \page\pageref{sect:suf}).  
I give verbs as stems in this document.
(See the Dictionary starting on \page\pageref{ch:dict}.)


\section{Stems}

A finite Turkish verb generally consists of a \emph{simple} stem, 
followed in order by endings that I shall call
\begin{compactenum}[1)]
  \item
\emph{vocal,}
\item
\emph{modal,}
\item
\emph{characteristic,} and
\item
\emph{personal.}  
\end{compactenum}
Dictionaries seem to treat
the vocal endings,
or \emph{voice suffixes} \cite[\refpage145]{Goksel-Kerslake},
as constructive suffixes,
while the modal endings are inflexional suffixes.
Neither vocal nor modal endings need be present in a verb.
  
A verb with only vocal or modal endings,
and no characteristic and personal endings, is a \textbf{stem.}\label{stem}  
Although stems with modal endings are not found in the dictionary, 
they can still be made into verbal nouns 
with \Tur{-m@k, -m@,} or \Tur{-(y)\#\c s.}

\subsection{Vocal endings}

One or more \textbf{vocal endings} may be found in a stem in
the following order:
\begin{enumerate}[1)]
  \item
\textbf{reflexive:} \Tur{-(\#)n;}
\item
\textbf{reciprocal:} \Tur{-(\#)\c s;}
\item
\textbf{causative:} \Tur{-(d)\#r} or \Tur{-(\#)t} or \Tur{-@r,} 
depending on the verb;
\item
\textbf{passive} or \textbf{impersonal:} \Tur{-\#l} or \Tur{-(\#)n.}
\end{enumerate}
Two or more causative endings can be used.  A reciprocal and a causative
ending together make the \textbf{repetitive} ending,
namely \Tur{-(\#)\c s\md t\#r.}
\begin{example}
\Tur{oku\md n-} \Eng{be read,}
\Tur{oku\md t-} \Eng{make} (somebody) \Eng{read,}\\ 
\Tur{\"ol-/\"ol\md d\"ur-/\"ol\md d\"ur\md t-/\"ol\md\"un-} (see
\S~\ref{sect:avrupa}, \page\pageref{ol});\\ 
\Tur{sev-} \Eng{love,}
\Tur{sev\md i\c s-} \Eng{make love;}\\ 
\Tur{bul-} \Eng{find,}
\Tur{bul\md un-} \Eng{be;}\\
\Tur{ara-} \Eng{look for,} \Tur{ara\md \c s\md t\i r-} \Eng{do research.}   
\end{example}

\subsection{Modal endings}

I call certain endings \textbf{modal,}
having failed to find better terminology.  
Lewis groups these endings together \cite[\refpage155]{Lewis2},
but does not give them a name.
They indicate affirmation, denial, impossibility and the
  \emph{possibility} of these.  Strictly, \emph{lack} of a modal ending
  indicates affirmation; denial is with \Tur{-m@;} impossibility,
  \Tur{-(y)@m@;} possibility, \Tur{-(y)@bil:}
\begin{center}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.6}
%\makebox[0pt][c]{
  \begin{tabular}{|lr|}\hline
\Tur{oku-} & read;\\
\Tur{oku\md ma-} & not read;\\
  \Tur{oku\md yama-} & cannot read;\\\hline
\Tur{oku\md yabil-} & can read;\\
\Tur{oku\md ma\md yabil-} & may not read;\\
\Tur{oku\md yama\md yabil-} &
  may be unable to read.\\\hline
\end{tabular}
%}
\end{center}
Early in the morning in Ankara once,
when a taxi driver found out
he would be taking me all the way to the airport, he told his friend,
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Gelemeyebilirim}
\Eng{Maybe I can't come}
\end{example}
---come, that is, to drink the tea the friend was brewing.
An example that I made up is,
\begin{example}
  \Tur{At i\c c\md tir\md il\md eme\md yebil\md ir\md dir}\\
  \Eng{A horse can perhaps not be made to drink.} 
\end{example}

The modal endings can be analyzed as follows,
at least according to Lewis \cite[\refpages109,~153~f.]{Lewis2}.  
The suffix \Tur{-m@} negates; 
the obsolete verb \Tur{u-} \Eng{be able,} negated, 
becomes the impotential suffix \Tur{-(y)@m@;}
the (living) verb \Tur{bil-} \Eng{know,}\label{bil} with a buffer, 
becomes the potential suffix \Tur{-(y)@bil.}  
But you cannot combine these just as you please; 
only the six given formations are available.  
However, there are a few other verbs that can be suffixed as \Tur{bil-} is; 
one example is \Tur{yaz-} in \Tur{\"ol\md eyaz-} 
(\S~\ref{sect:avrupa}, \page\pageref{ol}).

G\"oksel and Kerslake group the suffixable verbs together 
\cite[8.2.3.2, \refpage79]{Goksel-Kerslake},
but analyze the impotential suffix \Tur{-(y)@m@} into two suffixes,
\Tur{-(y)@} and the negating \Tur{-m@,}
which they consider separately \cite[8.2.3.1, 8.2.2]{Goksel-Kerslake}.



\section{Verbs from verbal nouns}

Again, a simple stem, possibly with vocal and modal endings added,
is still a stem.  
From this, we can make verbal nouns, such as the infinitive and the gerund.
Both
\begin{itemize}
\item 
the locative case (in \Tur{-m@k}) of the infinitive, and 
\item
the instrumental case (in \Tur{-l\#}, \page\pageref{la}) of the gerund,
\end{itemize}
can take predicative endings,
thus becoming finite verbs:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Oku\md mak\md ta\md d\i r} \Eng{\Heshe is engaged in reading};\\  
  \Tur{Oku\md ma\md l\i}  \Eng{\Heshe must read.}
\end{example}
Among Turkish speakers,
I have encountered resistence to the analysis 
of the \Tur{-m@l\#} of \Tur{okumal\i} 
as \Tur{-m@} plus \Tur{-l\#}.
G\"oksel and Kerslake \cite{Goksel-Kerslake} present the \Tur{-m@l\#} suffix
without further analysis.
The older Lewis does analyze the suffix \cite[VIII.30, \refpage126]{Lewis2},
while noting that, rarely, 
the gerund with \Tur{-l\#} may be a simple adjective:
in addition to \Eng{\heshe must hang,}
\Tur{asmal\i} can just mean \Eng{vine-covered}
\cite[X.9, \refpage172]{Lewis2}.

\section{Verbal adjectives}\label{sect:part}

Also obtained from a stem are five verbal adjectives,
or \textbf{participles:}
\begin{description}
  \item[present,] in \Tur{-(y)@n;} 
\item[future,] in \Tur{-(y)@c@k;} 
\item[past-present,] in \Tur{-d\#k;}
\item[past,] in \Tur{-m\#\c s;} 
\item[(positive) aorist]\label{aor}
 in \Tur{-(@)r} or \Tur{-\#r.}  
\end{description}
The aorist is the \Tur{geni\c s zaman} \Eng{broad tense;} see below.
Lewis refers to the past-present and the past participles
as the \Tur{di}-past and \Tur{mi\c s}-past, respectively,
while noting
that the former may denote present activity,
like \Eng{done} in \Eng{things done today} 
as opposed to \Eng{things done yesterday} \cite[IX.6, \refpage164]{Lewis2}.

Aorist participles with negative or impotential stems are anomalous, so we
must speak of the 
\begin{description}
  \item[negative aorist,] in \Tur{-m@z;}
\item[impotential aorist,] in \Tur{-(y)@m@z.} 
\end{description}
A future or past-present participle can take
a suffix of possession, indicating the person of the \emph{subject} of
the action indicated by the participle:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{oku\md du\u g\md um kitap} 
\Eng{book that I did read} or \Eng{am reading,}\\
\Tur{oku\md yaca\u g\md\i m kitap} \Eng{book that I shall read.}
\end{example}
Thus a possession suffix indicates, so to speak, 
the possessor of the action named by the participle.
This possessor may be named by a noun in the possessive case:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{G\"ul'\"un okudu\u gu kitap} \Eng{The book read by G\"ul.}
\end{example}
The present, past, and aorist participles
do not take possession suffixes, except with the usual sense:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{gel\md en, gid\md en} \Eng{that which comes, that which goes};\\
\Tur{dol\md mu\c s} \Eng{filled, minibus (because it is usually filled)};\\
\Tur{dol\md mu\c s\md umuz} \Eng{our minibus};\\
\Tur{ak\md ar\md su} \Eng{flowing water, stream};\\
\Tur{say\md\i l\md abil\md ir, say\md\i l\md amaz} 
\Eng{countable, uncountable} \cite{Nesin-SKK}.
\end{example}
A number of the proverbs in \S~\ref{sect:say}, \page\pageref{sect:say},
feature present participles, often with case-endings.

\section{Verbs from verbal adjectives}

The future, aorist, and past participles 
can take \emph{predicative} endings, thereby becoming finite verbs.  
Since the third-person predicative ending is empty, 
the participles themselves may also be finite verbs:
\begin{example}
\Tur{Oku\md yacak} \Eng{\Heshe will read.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md r} \Eng{\Heshe reads, is a reader.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md maz} \Eng{\Heshe does not read.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md yamaz} \Eng{\Heshe is illiterate.}\\ 
\Tur{Oku\md mu\c s} \Eng{\Heshe read} [in the past].
%\qquad\qquad\qquad according to what we are given to understand].}
\end{example}
Another family of verbs can be understood under this scheme as follows.
The verb \Tur{y\"ur\"u-} \Eng{walk} was originally \Tur{yor\i-} \cite{Nis-Et}.
We can conceive of this as being suffixable to a verb, 
just as \Tur{bil-} is (\page\pageref{bil}).
Then we should be able to form aorist participles like \Tur{*say\i layor\i r,}
on the pattern of \Tur{say\i labilir.}
Thus we would be using a suffix \Tur{-(y)@yor\i r}
on the pattern of \Tur{-(y)@bilir,}
that is, \Tur{-(y)@bil} + \Tur{\#r.}

It seems that speakers of an ancestor of modern Turkish did this 
\cite[\refpage106 f.]{Lewis2},
but now the suffix \Tur{-(y)@yor\i r} has been abraded to
\begin{center}
\Tur{-(\#)yor}.
\end{center}
This ending is not used to make participles as such;
but with the predicative endings,
it still forms finite verbs, namely verbs of the \textbf{present tense:}
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{@{}lr|lr@{}}\hline
\Tur{okuyorum}&\Eng{I am reading}&\Tur{okuyoruz}&\Eng{we are reading}\\
\Tur{okuyorsun}&\Eng{thou art reading}&\Tur{okuyorsunuz}&\Eng{you are reading}\\
\Tur{okuyor}&\Eng{\heshe is reading}&\Tur{okuyorlar}&\Eng{they are reading}
\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
Compare with the aorist:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{|lr|lr|}\hline
\Tur{okurum}&\Eng{I read}&\Tur{okuruz}&\Eng{we read}\\
\Tur{okursun}&\Eng{thou readst}&\Tur{okursunuz}&\Eng{you read}\\
\Tur{okur}&\Eng{\heshe reads}&\Tur{okurlar}&\Eng{they read}
\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
A difference between aorist and present-tense verbs 
is illustrated in a comment on Turkish driving habits 
\cite[VIII, 25, \refpage117]{Lewis2}:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Ba\c ska memleketlerde kazara \"ol\md \"ur\md ler;}\\
    \Tur{biz kazara ya\c s\i\md yor\md uz.}\\
    \Eng{In other countries they die by accident;}\\
    \Eng{we are living by accident.}
\end{example}
The difference between the aorist
\begin{example}
\Tur{anlamam} 
\Eng{I am not somebody who understands}
\end{example}
and the present-tense
\begin{example}
\Tur{anlam\i yorum} \Eng{I don't understand at the moment}
\end{example}
is illustrated by Ali Nesin \cite{Nesin-anlamam}.
In 2005, he was selling copies 
of \emph{Matematik D\"unyas\i} magazine at the Istanbul Book Fair
when a man visited the stand,
identified himself as a mathematician,
said he had heard of the magazine,
but declined to buy a copy,
saying
\Tur{Ben bunlar\i\ anlamam}
\Eng{I don't understand these things.} 
Nesin responds:
\begin{quote}
  I never saw a mathematician who said \Tur{anlamam.}
Many say
\Tur{anlam\i yorum,}
everybody says it,
but I never encountered somebody who said, \Tur{anlamam.}
\end{quote}

\section{Pure verbs}

A verb without characteristic or personal endings is a \emph{stem} 
(\page\pageref{stem});
a verb without personal endings is a \textbf{base.}
Thus a base is a stem plus a characteristic.
So far then, from the stem \Tur{sev-} for example,
we have the bases
\begin{example}
  \Tur{sevmekte, sevmeli,\\
seven, sevecek, sevdik, sevmi\c s,\\
sever, sevmez, sevemez,\\
seviyor.}
\end{example}
Except perhaps the last,
all of these are nouns or adjectives, at least in origin,
and all take predicative endings.

There are verbs that definitely do not start out as any other part of speech.
The subjunctive and imperative endings in Figure \ref{table:person}, 
\page\pageref{table:person}, attach directly to stems,
without a characteristic.
The second- and third-person subjunctives are rarely seen,
and the first-person subjunctive has the effect of an imperative.
Since there are no official first-person imperative endings,
it may be useful to combine the subjunctive and imperative endings
into one series of verbs that are imperative (or perhaps optative) in meaning:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{llll}
    \Tur{seveyim}&\Tur{sevelim}&\Tur{sev/sevin!}&\Tur{sevsin}\\
\Eng{let me love}&\Eng{let us love}&\Eng{love, thou/you!}
&\Eng{let \himher love}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

Finally,
there are a
\begin{description}
  \item[definite past tense] with characteristic \Tur{-d\#,} and a
\item[conditional mood] with characteristic
\Tur{-s@.}
\end{description}
The personal endings used with these bases 
are the endings called \emph{verbal} in Figure~\ref{table:person},
\page\pageref{table:person}.
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{|lr|lr|}\hline
    \Tur{okudum}&\Eng{I did read}&\Tur{okuduk}&\Eng{we did read}\\
    \Tur{okudun}&\Eng{thou didst read}&\Tur{okudunuz}&\Eng{you did read}\\
    \Tur{okudu}&\Eng{\heshe did read}&\Tur{okudular}&\Eng{they did read}
\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}
{I use the emphatic \Eng{I did read} 
simply because of the ambiguity of the written form of \Eng{read} by itself:
is it pronounced \Eng{r\u ed} or \Eng{r\=ed}?)
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Oku\md sa}  \Eng{If only \heshe would read!}
\end{example}
Roughly, the difference between \Tur{okumu\c s} and \Tur{okudu} is that
the latter connotes eyewitness knowledge, the former inference or hearsay.
Thus the past in \Tur{-m\#\c s} may be called the \textbf{inferential past.}

In practice, a past-tense form need not have a past meaning:
\begin{example}
\Tur{geldim,} literally \Eng{I came,}
may mean \Eng{I'm coming right away.}
\end{example}
You can say good-bye to your friend on the telephone with either of
\begin{example}
  \Tur{\"opt\"um} \Eng{I kissed,} \Tur{\"op\"uyorum} 
\Eng{I am kissing [thee].}
\end{example}

The conditional characteristic \Tur{-s@} 
appears in the logical form \Tur{$A$ ise $B$} of Figure \ref{fig:conjunct}, 
\page\pageref{fig:conjunct}.
Here \Tur{ise} is understood as attached to $A$.
It is normally used in compounds, as considered in \S\ref{sect:comp}.
Let us just note here that conditional forms 
are used to denote \emph{sufficient} conditions,
not \emph{necessary} conditions.
In the implication $A\to B$,
\begin{compactitem}
  \item
$A$ is sufficient for $B$, and
\item
$B$ is necessary for $A$.
\end{compactitem}
In Turkish, it is $A$ that will feature the conditional characteristic,
while in French, $B$ would be conditional.

All of the characteristics can now be collected as in Figure~\ref{fig:suf}.
\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\renewcommand{\arraystretch}{1.1}
  \begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|}\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}& participle & base\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{necessitative} & & \Tur{-m@l\#}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}&& \Tur{-m@kt@}\\\cline{4-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{present}}&
  \raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\Tur{-@n}}& 
  \Tur{-\#yor}\\\hline 
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{future}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(y)@cak}}\\\hline
      &positive&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(@)r, -\#r}}\\\cline{2-4}
aorist&negative&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-m@z}}\\\cline{2-4}
      &impotential&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(y)@m@z}}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-m\#\c s}}\\\cline{3-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{past}}&
   \Tur{-d\#k}&\Tur{-d\#}\\\hline 
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{conditional}&&\Tur{-s@}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{imperative}&&\Tur{-}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\caption{Characteristics of verbs}\label{fig:suf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}


\section{Questions}

The \textbf{interrogative particle} \Tur{m\#} (which appeared in
\S~\ref{sect:avrupa}, \page\pageref{ch:avrupa}) 
precedes the predicative endings, but follows
the other personal endings:
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{@{}r@{\ }ll@{}}
  \Tur{Oku\md mak\md ta}&\Tur{m\i\md y\i m}&\Eng{Am I engaged in reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md ma\md l\i}&\Tur{m\i\md y\i m}&\Eng{Must I read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yacak}&\Tur{m\i\md y\i m}&\Eng{Am I going to read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md r}&\Tur{mu\md yum}&\Eng{Do I read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md maz}&\Tur{m\i\md y\i m}&\Eng{Do I not read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yama\md z}&\Tur{m\i y\i m}&\Eng{Can I not read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md mu\c s}&\Tur{mu\md yum}&\Eng{Did I supposedly read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yor}&\Tur{mu\md yum}&\Eng{Am I reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md dum}&\Tur{mu}&\Eng{Did you see me reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md sa\md m}&\Tur{m\i}&\Eng{Should I read, I wonder?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yay\i m}&\Tur{m\i}&\Eng{Shall I read, do you want me to read?}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

\section{Compound tenses}\label{sect:comp}

\textbf{Compound tenses} are formed by means of
the \textbf{defective verb}
\begin{example}
\Tur{i-} \Eng{be.}  
\end{example}
The stem \Tur{i-} takes no
vocal or modal endings.  It forms no verbal nouns.  It \emph{does}
form the participle \Tur{iken,} which has a suffixed form \Tur{-(y)ken}
and may follow a verb-base:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Gel\md ir\md ken, bana oyun\md cak tren ge\md tir\md ir
  mi\md sin?}\\  
\Eng{When you come, will you bring me a toy
  train?}
\end{example}
This was said in a cartoon in \emph{Penguen} by a calf
  to his father, who was trying 
  to explain why he (the bull) was going with the butcher on a long trip from
  which he would never return.
  
The stem \Tur{i-} forms the bases \Tur{i\md mi\c s, i\md di,} and
\Tur{i\md se,}
which can be suffixed as \Tur{-(y)m\#\c s, -(y)d\#,}
and \Tur{-(y)s@.}  Hence two \textbf{compound bases} in \Tur{i-} are formed:
\Tur{i\md mi\c s\md se} and \Tur{i\md di\md yse.}
Verbs in \Tur{i-} are negated with a preceding \Tur{de\u gil,} and
``interrogated'' (made into questions) 
with a preceding \Tur{m\#;} the \Tur{de\u gil} precedes
the \Tur{m\#} 
if both are used.  Verbs in \Tur{i-} may be
attached to nouns; verbs in \Tur{i-} with simple (not compound) bases
may be attached to verb-bases not in
\Tur{i-.}  Missing forms in \Tur{i-} are supplied by \Tur{ol-}
\Eng{become.} 
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Ku\c s\md mu\c s} \Eng{It was apparently a bird.}\\
\Tur{Hay\i r, u\c cak\md t\i} \Eng{No, it was a plane.}\\
\Tur{U\c cak ise, ni\c cin u\c c\md mu\md yor?}  \Eng{If it is a plane, why
  is it not flying?}\\
\Tur{U\c c\md acak\md t\i} \Eng{It was going to fly.}\\
\Tur{U\c c\md ar\md sa, bin\md ecek mi\md siniz?}  \Eng{If it flies, will you
  board?}\\
\Tur{\c Cabuk ol!}  \Eng{Be quick!}\\
\Tur{Ol\md mak ve sahip ol\md mak} \Eng{To be and to be an owner.}
\end{example}
The last example is Turkish title of the French movie
\emph{Etre et avoir.}\label{Etre}

The sentence
\begin{example}
\Tur{Ge\c cmi\c s olsun} 
\end{example}
was listed on \page\pageref{gecmis}.
Formally it is a perfect imperative:  \Eng{Passed may it be,
let it have passed.}
The form is useful for translating Euclid.
When, 
in Proposition I.6 of the \emph{Elements} \cite{Euclid-Heiberg},
Euclid says
\begin{example}
  \foreignlanguage{polutonikogreek}{\textporson{>epeze'uqjw <h DG}},
\end{example}
this is not quite, as Heath would have it \cite[p.\ 7]{MR1932864},
\Eng{Let $\Delta\Gamma$ be joined};
it is more like \Eng{Suppose $\Delta\Gamma$ has already been joined.}
This reminds us 
that Euclid did not have erasable writing boards like ours;
in his lectures
(not to mention his completed manuscripts), 
the diagrams had already been drawn
\cite[\refpage25]{MR1683176}.
This may not be enough reason 
to bother with the periphrastic perfect imperative of English;
but the Turkish translation is somewhat simpler:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Birle\c stirilmi\c s olsun} \Eng{Let it have been joined} \cite{Oklid},
\end{example}
as opposed to
\begin{example}
\Tur{Birle\c stirilsin} \Eng{Let it be joined.}
\end{example}
In any case, as noted on \page\pageref{gecmis}, 
\Tur{Ge\c cmi\c s olsun} may be said of bad things, such as sickness, 
that are already known to have passed.
Perhaps it should be understood as a wish 
that the bad things should pass even from memory---%
and not just that they should pass, 
but that they should \emph{already have passed.}

\subsection{Subordination}

As noted, \Tur{-(y)ken} is used with a verb-base to subordinate the verb.
There are various endings used with verb-\emph{stems} that subordinate
the verb to another:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
\Tur{-(y)\#nc@} (denotes action just before that of the main verb);
\item
\Tur{-(y)\#nc@y@ kadar} \Eng{until ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-(y)@} (the ending used in \Tur{G\"ule g\"ule,} 
\page\pageref{gule}, \Chapter\ref{ch:day});
\item
\Tur{-(y)@r@k} \Eng{by ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-m@d@n} \Eng{without ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-m@d@n \"once} \Eng{before ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-d\#kt@n sonra} \Eng{after ---ing.}
\end{itemize}
Here are a couple of literary examples given in \cite{Atabay}:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{\c Ciftli\u ge do\u gru iste\md me\md yerek y\"ur\"ud\"u.}\\
\Eng{\Heshe walked towards the farm without wanting to.}

\Tur{\.Ilkyazlarla yeniden canlan\i\c s\i\ do\u gan\i n,
k\i\c s ba\c s\md la\md y\i nca s\"onmesi.}\\
\Eng{With spring comes nature's rebirth; with winter, its extinction.}
\end{example}

\chapter{Sentences}

\section{Sayings}\label{sect:say}

Various collections of Turkish proverbs are available
\cite{Karaca-atasoz,Ozdemir,Turkhan}.
The sayings below are taken from these books.
Ideally, if a translation is not given (or even if it is),
the reader should be able to supply a translation
on the basis of the present document.
All needed root-words should be
in \Chapter\ref{ch:dict}.

\begin{enumerate}
\item
\Tur{Bakmakla \"o\u grenilse, k\"opekler kasap olurdu.}\\
\Eng{If learning were done by watching, dogs would be butchers.}
\item
\Tur{Bal tutan parma\u g\i n\i\ yalar.}\\  
\Eng{The worker takes a share of the goods.}
  \item\label{balci}
\Tur{Balc\i n\i n var bal tas\i; oduncunun var baltas\i.}%%%%%
\footnote{Normal word order would be \Tur{Balc\i n\i n bal tas\i\ var;
oduncunun baltas\i\ var.}}\\ 
\Eng{A honey-seller has a honey-pot; a woodsman has an axe.} 
\item
\Tur{Bir deli kuyuya ta\c s atm\i\c s, k\i rk ak\i ll\i\ \c c\i
  karamam\i\c s.}
\item
\Tur{\c Cok ya\c sayan bilmez, \c cok gezen bilir.}
\item
\Tur{Ge\c c olsun da, g\"u\c c olmas\i n.}\\
\Eng{Let it be late; just don't let it be difficult.}
\item
\Tur{Gelen gideni arat\i r.}\\
\Eng{What comes makes you look for what goes.
(The new makes you miss the old.)}
\item
\Tur{G\"on\"ul ferman dinlemez.}
\item
\Tur{G\"or\"unen k\"oy k\i lavuz istemez.}\\
\Eng{You don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows.}
\item\label{yigit}
\Tur{Her yi\u gidin bir yo\u gurt yeyi\c si vard\i r.}\\
\Eng{Everyone has \hisher own way of doing things.}
\item
\Tur{Hocanin dedi\u gini yap, yapt\i\u g\i n\i\ yapma.}
\item
\Tur{\.Isteyenin bir y\"uz\"u kara, vermeyenin iki y\"uz\"u.}\\
\Eng{The person who asks for something has a black face, but the
  person who doesn't give it has two.}
\item
\Tur{Kedi uzanamad\i\u g\i\ ci\u gere pis der.}
(\Eng{sour grapes})
\item
\Tur{Meyvas\i\ olan a\u gac\i\ ta\c slarlar.}
\item
\Tur{Nasihat istersen, tembele i\c s buyur.}\\
\Eng{If you want to hear advice, ask a lazy person to work.}
\item
\Tur{Olmaz, olmaz deme, olmaz olmaz.}
\item
\Tur{\"Olenle \"ol\"unmez.}  \Eng{One doesn't die with the dead.}
\item
\Tur{S\"oz g\"um\"u\c sse, s\"uk\^ut alt\i nd\i r.}
\item
\Tur{\"Uz\"um\"u ye, ba\u g\i n\i\ sorma.}
\item\label{Abbas}
\Tur{Yolcudur Abbas, ba\u glasan durmaz.}%%%%%
\footnote{Normal word order would be \Tur{Abbas yolcudur.}}\\
\Eng{Abbas is a traveller; tie him down, he does not stop.}
\item
\Tur{Yuvarlanan ta\c s yosun tutmaz.}
\end{enumerate}

\section{Journalese}

One may in theory know all of the grammar presented so far,
without being able to make sense of sentences in a newspaper.
This section represents my attempt to analyze two such sentences.
First, here are
\begin{inparaenum}[(1)]
  \item
one of these sentences,
\item
 a word-by-word translation, and
\item
a proper English translation:
\end{inparaenum}
\begin{quote}
  \Tur{1701 numaral\i\ kararda bar\i\c s g\"uc\"un\"un\\
bu g\"orevi yerine getirebilmesi i\c cin\\
L\"ubnan ordusuna yard\i mc\i\ olmas\i\\ 
istenirken, s\"oz konusu g\"orevinin\\
engellenmeye \c cal\i\c s\i lmas\i\ durumunda g\"u\c c\\
kullanabilece\u gi belirtiliyor.}

\raggedright
  1701 numbered in-the-decision peace its-forces'\\
this duty [\emph{d.o.}] to-its\-{}-place to-be-able-to-bring for\\
Lebanon to-its-army assistant its-being\\
while-being-desired, word its-subject duty's\\
to-be-impeded [\emph{i.o.}] its-being-worked in-its-state force\\
  that-it-will-be-able-to-be-used it-is-made-clear.

  \Eng{In the decision numbered 1701, as it is desired that the peace
  forces will help the Lebanese army so that it can fulfill this
  duty, it is made clear that, in case the duty under discussion 
  is being hindered, force can be used.}
\end{quote}
In Figure~\ref{fig:ordu},
I diagram the Turkish sentence by the following principles: 
\begin{compactenum}
  \item
No two verbs (or forms of verbs) are on the same line.
\item
The complements of a verb are on the same line with the verb, or---if
they involve verbs themselves---are attached to that line from above.
\item
Modifiers of nouns are raised above the nouns.
\item
The diagram retains the original word-order.
\end{compactenum}

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\begin{pspicture}(0,0)(10,4.8)
\psset{yunit=.8cm}
%\psgrid
\psline(0,1.2)(0,0)
\psdots(0,1.2)(0,0.6)(0,0)
\uput[ur](0,1.2){1701}
\uput[ur](0,0.6){numara\md l\i}
\uput[ur](0,0){karar\md da}
\psdots(1.8,0)(1.8,3.0)(1.8,3.6)(1.8,4.2)
\psline(1.8,0)(1.8,4.2)
\uput[ur](1.8,4.2){bar\i\c s}
\uput[ur](1.8,3.6){g\"uc\md\"u\md n\"un}
\psdots(3.6,3.6)(3.6,4.2)
\psline(3.6,3.6)(3.6,4.8)
\uput[ur](3.6,4.2){i\c cin}
\psdots(4.2,4.8)(4.2,5.4)
\psline(4.2,4.8)(4.2,5.4)
\uput[ur](4.2,5.4){bu}
\uput[ur](4.2,4.8){g\"orev\md i}
\psdots(5.6,4.8)
\uput[ur](5.6,4.8){yer\md i\md ne}
\psdots(7.1,4.8)
\psline(3.6,4.8)(7.1,4.8)
\uput[ur](7.1,4.8){ge\md tir\md ebil\md me\md si}
\psdots(4.5,4.2)(4.5,3.6)
\psline(4.5,4.2)(4.5,3.6)
\uput[ur](4.5,4.2){L\"ubnan}
\uput[ur](4.5,3.6){ordu\md su\md na}
\psdots(6.5,3.6)
\uput[ur](6.5,3.6){yard\i m\md c\i}
\psdots(8.3,3.6)
\uput[ur](8.3,3.6){ol\md ma\md s\i}
\psline(1.8,3.6)(8.3,3.6)
\psdots(2.4,3.0)
\psline(1.8,3.0)(2.4,3.0)
\uput[ur](2.4,3.0){iste\md n\md ir\md ken}
\psdots(2.4,2.4)(2.4,1.8)(2.4,1.2)(2.4,0.0)
\psline(2.4,2.4)(2.4,0.0)
\uput[ur](2.4,2.4){s\"oz}
\uput[ur](2.4,1.8){konu\md su}
\uput[ur](2.4,1.2){g\"orev\md i\md nin}
\psdots(5.0,1.8)(5.0,1.2)
\psline(2.4,1.2)(5.0,1.2)
\psline(4.4,1.2)(4.4,1.8)(5.0,1.8)
\uput[ur](5.0,1.8){engel\md le\md n\md me\md ye}
\uput[ur](5.0,1.2){\c cal\i\c s\md \i l\md ma\md s\i}
\uput[ur](2.4,0.0){dur\md um\md u\md nda}
\psdots(5.4,0.0)(5.4,0.6)
\psline(4.8,0.0)(4.8,0.6)
\uput[ur](5.4,0.6){g\"u\c c}
\psdots(6.3,0.6)
\psline(4.8,0.6)(6.3,0.6)
\psline(0,0)(5.4,0)
\uput[ur](6.3,0.6){kul\md lan\md abil\md ece\u g\md i}
\uput[ur](5.4,0.0){belirti\md li\md yor}
\psdots[dotstyle=o]
(3.6,4.8)(1.8,3.0)(1.8,0.0)(4.4,1.8)(4.4,1.2)(4.8,0)(4.8,0.6) 
\end{pspicture}
\caption{A newspaper sentence, diagrammed}\label{fig:ordu}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Another example concerns the electricity 
that my spouse and I experienced in Ankara
before moving to Istanbul.
Here I merely embolden all words that are verbs or
  are derived from 
  verbs:\footnote{The 
  sentence is from \emph{Birg\"un,} November 7, 2006; I didn't record
  the source of the earlier sentence.}
\begin{quote}
  \Tur{\"Ozellikle i\c sten eve \textbf{geli\c s} saatlerinde\\
\textbf{kar\c s\i la\c st\i klar\i\
kesintilerin ``b\i kt\i rd\i\u g\i
n\i'' s\"oyleyen}\\
Ankaral\i lar, aile bireylerinin evde
 \textbf{oldu\u gu,} bir\\
arada \textbf{yemek yedi\u gi} saatlerin elektrik \textbf{kesintileri}\\
y\"uz\"unden karanl\i kta \textbf{ge\c cirilmesinin} modern\\
\c sehirlerde e\c sine az \textbf{rastlan\i l\i r} bir \textbf{durum oldu\u gunu}\\
ifade \textbf{etti.}}

\raggedright
Especially from-work homewards coming at-these-hours\\
encountered by-the-cuts ``fed-up-with'' saying\\
Ankarans, family members' at-home being, one\\
 in-an-interval meal eating its-hours' electric cuts\\
from-their-face in-the-dark being-passed's modern\\
in-cities to-its-equal little encountered a state being\\
expression made. 

\Eng{Saying they are fed up with cuts, experienced especially at the
  hours of coming home from work, Ankarans indicated that the passing
  of hours when family members are at home eating a meal together, in
  the dark because of electricity cuts, was a situation rarely meeting
  an equal in modern cities.}
\end{quote}

\chapter{Dictionary}\label{ch:dict}

Nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs used elsewhere in these notes
(except perhaps \Chapter\ref{ch:day})
are listed here.  For postpositions, see \Chapter\ref{ch:parts}.
Verbs are given as stems, with a hyphen.
The big Redhouse dictionary \cite{Redhouse} 
lists verbs this way, 
but with an equal sign ($=$) in place of a hyphen.
Other dictionaries, as \cite{Puskulluoglu} or \cite{Redhouse-port},
list verbs in their infinitive forms, in \Tur{-m@k}.
Forms with constructive suffixes are generally not given below,
unless they are anomalous.

\begin{multicols}{2}
\noindent
\Tur{a\u ga} \Eng{lord}\\
\Tur{a\u ga\c c} \Eng{tree}\\
\Tur{ak-} \Eng{flow}\\
\Tur{ak\i l} \Eng{wisdom}\\
\Tur{aile} \Eng{family}\\
\Tur{al-} \Eng{take, buy}\\
\Tur{alt\i n} \Eng{gold}\\
\Tur{an-} \Eng{think of}\\
\Tur{ana, anne} \Eng{mother}\\
\Tur{anla-} \Eng{understand}\\
\Tur{ara} \Eng{interval}\\
\Tur{ara-} \Eng{look for, call}\\
\Tur{arka} \Eng{back}\\
\Tur{as-} \Eng{hang}\\
\Tur{at} \Eng{horse}\\
\Tur{ata} \Eng{father}\\
\Tur{ayak} \Eng{foot}\\
\Tur{ba\u g} 1 \Eng{tie, bond}\\
\Tur{ba\u g} 2 \Eng{vineyard}\\
\Tur{bak-} \Eng{look}\\
\Tur{bal} \Eng{honey}\\
\Tur{bal\i k} \Eng{fish}\\
\Tur{balta} \Eng{axe}\\
\Tur{banka} \Eng{bank}\\
\Tur{bar\i\c s} \Eng{peace}\\
\Tur{ba\c s} \Eng{head}\\
\Tur{belir-} \Eng{become visible}\\
\Tur{b\i\c cak} \Eng{knife}\\
\Tur{b\i k-} \Eng{get bored}\\
\Tur{bil-} \Eng{know}\\
\Tur{bin-} \Eng{go up or on}\\
\Tur{birey} \Eng{individual}\\
\Tur{birle\c s-} \Eng{unite}\\
\Tur{b\"ol-} \Eng{divide}\\
\Tur{bul-} \Eng{find}\\
\Tur{buyur-} \Eng{command}\\
\Tur{cadde} \Eng{road}\\
\Tur{cami} \Eng{mosque}\\
\Tur{can} \Eng{soul, life}\\
\Tur{ci\u ger} \Eng{liver}\\
\Tur{Cuma} \Eng{Friday}\\
\Tur{\c cabuk} \Eng{quick, fast}\\
\Tur{\c ca\u g} \Eng{era}\\
\Tur{\c cal\i\c s-} \Eng{work}\\
\Tur{\c ciftlik} \Eng{farm}\\
\Tur{\c cocuk} \Eng{child}\\
\Tur{\c corba} \Eng{soup}\\
\Tur{de-} \Eng{say}\\
\Tur{dedikodu} \Eng{gossip}\\
\Tur{deli} \Eng{mad}\\
\Tur{deniz} \Eng{sea}\\
\Tur{devir-} \Eng{overturn}\\
\Tur{diken} \Eng{thorn}\\
\Tur{dil} \Eng{tongue, language}\\
\Tur{dinle-} \Eng{listen to}\\
\Tur{do\u g-} \Eng{be born}\\
\Tur{do\u ga} \Eng{nature}\\
\Tur{dur-} \Eng{stop}\\
\Tur{d\"unya} \Eng{world}\\
\Tur{engel} \Eng{obstacle}\\
\Tur{eski} \Eng{old, not new}\\
\Tur{e\c s} \Eng{match, equal}\\
\Tur{et} \Eng{meat}\\
\Tur{et-} \Eng{make, do}\\
\Tur{ev} \Eng{house, home}\\
\Tur{ferman} \Eng{imperial edict}\\
\Tur{gazete} \Eng{newspaper}\\
\Tur{gece} \Eng{night}\\
\Tur{ge\c c} \Eng{late}\\
\Tur{gel-} \Eng{come}\\
\Tur{getir-} \Eng{bring}\\
\Tur{git-} \Eng{go}\\
\Tur{g\"on\"ul} \Eng{heart}\\
\Tur{g\"or-} \Eng{see}\\
\Tur{g\"orev} \Eng{duty}\\
\Tur{g\"u\c c} \Eng{power}\\
\Tur{g\"ul} \Eng{rose}\\
\Tur{g\"ul-} \Eng{smile, laugh}\\
\Tur{g\"um\"u\c s} \Eng{silver}\\
\Tur{g\"un} \Eng{day}\\
\Tur{hoca} \Eng{(religious) teacher}\\
\Tur{h\"urriyet} \Eng{liberty}\\
\Tur{i\c c-} \Eng{drink, smoke}\\
\Tur{ifade} \Eng{expression}\\
\Tur{ilkyaz} \Eng{spring}\\
\Tur{imaret} \Eng{soup-kitchen (Ottom.\ hist.)}\\
\Tur{iste-} \Eng{desire, ask for}\\
\Tur{i\c s} \Eng{work, business}\\
\Tur{kap} \Eng{container}\\
\Tur{kar} \Eng{snow}\\
\Tur{k\^ar} \Eng{profit}\\
\Tur{karanl\i k} \Eng{dark}\\
\Tur{karar} \Eng{decision}\\
\Tur{kar\i n} \Eng{belly}\\
\Tur{kar\c s\i la-} \Eng{go to meet}\\
\Tur{kasap} \Eng{butcher}\\
\Tur{kazara} \Eng{by chance}\\
\Tur{kebap} \Eng{kebab}\\
\Tur{kedi} \Eng{cat}\\
\Tur{kes-} \Eng{cut}\\
\Tur{k\i lavuz} \Eng{guide}\\
\Tur{k\i\c s} \Eng{winter}\\
\Tur{kilit} \Eng{lock}\\
\Tur{kim} \Eng{who?}\\
\Tur{ki\c si} \Eng{person}\\
\Tur{kitap} \Eng{book}\\
\Tur{konu} \Eng{topic}\\
\Tur{konu\c s-} \Eng{speak}\\
\Tur{kop-} \Eng{break off}\\
\Tur{koru-} \Eng{protect}\\
\Tur{k\"opek} \Eng{dog}\\
\Tur{k\"oy} \Eng{village}\\
\Tur{kul} \Eng{slave}\\
\Tur{kullan-} \Eng{use}\\
\Tur{ku\c s} \Eng{bird}\\
\Tur{kuyu} \Eng{well}\\
\Tur{memleket} \Eng{native land}\\
\Tur{mercimek} \Eng{lentil}\\
\Tur{meslek} \Eng{profession}\\
\Tur{meyva} \Eng{fruit}\\
\Tur{nasihat} \Eng{advice}\\
\Tur{numara} \Eng{number}\\
\Tur{odun} \Eng{firewood}\\
\Tur{oku-} \Eng{read}\\
\Tur{ol-} \Eng{become, be}\\
\Tur{ordu} \Eng{army}\\
\Tur{oyun} \Eng{game, play}\\
\Tur{\"o\u gren-} \Eng{learn}\\
\Tur{\"o\u gret-} \Eng{teach}\\
\Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die}\\
\Tur{\"ornek} \Eng{example}\\
\Tur{\"ozel} \Eng{special, private}\\
\Tur{\"ozg\"ur} \Eng{free, not bound}\\
\Tur{parmak} \Eng{finger}\\
\Tur{pis} \Eng{dirty}\\
\Tur{rak\i} \Eng{arak}\\
\Tur{rastla-} \Eng{meet by chance}\\
\Tur{sahip} \Eng{owner}\\
\Tur{sar\i} \Eng{yellow}\\
\Tur{sat-} \Eng{sell}\\
\Tur{say-} \Eng{count}\\
\Tur{sev-} \Eng{love}\\
\Tur{son} \Eng{end}\\
\Tur{sor-} \Eng{ask (about)}\\
\Tur{s\"on-} \Eng{die down, go out}\\
\Tur{s\"oz} \Eng{expression, word}\\
\Tur{s\"oyle-} \Eng{say}\\
\Tur{s\"uk\^ut} \Eng{silence}\\
\Tur{s\"ut} \Eng{milk}\\
\Tur{\c sehir} \Eng{city}\\
\Tur{\c seker} \Eng{sugar}\\
\Tur{tas} \Eng{pot}\\
\Tur{ta\c s} \Eng{stone}\\
\Tur{tembel} \Eng{lazy}\\
\Tur{temiz} \Eng{clean}\\
\Tur{tren} \Eng{train}\\
\Tur{tut-} \Eng{hold}\\
\Tur{tuz} \Eng{salt}\\
\Tur{u\c c-} \Eng{fly}\\
\Tur{uza-} \Eng{get longer}\\
\Tur{\"uz\"um} \Eng{grape}\\
\Tur{ver-} \Eng{give}\\
\Tur{yala-} \Eng{lick}\\
\Tur{yap-} \Eng{make, do}\\
\Tur{yard\i m} \Eng{aid}\\
\Tur{ya\c sa-} \Eng{live}\\
\Tur{yaz} \Eng{summer}\\
\Tur{yaz-} \Eng{write}\\
\Tur{ye-} \Eng{eat}\\
\Tur{yemek} \Eng{food}\\
\Tur{yeni} \Eng{new}\\
\Tur{yer} \Eng{ground, place}\\
\Tur{yi\u git} \Eng{(brave) young man}\\
\Tur{yo\u gurt} \Eng{yogurt}\\
\Tur{yol} \Eng{road}\\
\Tur{yosun} \Eng{moss, seaweed}\\
\Tur{yumu\c sa-} \Eng{become soft}\\
\Tur{yuvarla-} \Eng{roll}\\
\Tur{y\"ur\"u-} \Eng{walk}\\
\Tur{y\"uz} 1 \Eng{100}\\
\Tur{y\"uz} 2 \Eng{face}
\end{multicols}


\nocite{Puskulluoglu}

%\bibliographystyle{plain}
%\bibliography{../references}
\def\cprime{$'$} \def\cprime{$'$} \def\cprime{$'$}
  \def\rasp{\leavevmode\raise.45ex\hbox{$\rhook$}} \def\cprime{$'$}
  \def\cprime{$'$} \def\cprime{$'$} \def\cprime{$'$}
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\end{thebibliography}

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