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\title{The Logic of Turkish}
\author{David Pierce}

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\section{Introduction}
These notes are about the majority language of Turkey.  To a native
English speaker, such as the writer of these notes, Turkish
is remarkable in a number of ways:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
Turkish is an \emph{inflected} language, like Greek or Latin (or French, as
far as verbs are concerned).
\item
Unlike Greek and Latin, Turkish has only one way to
  \emph{decline} a noun.
\item
Unlike French, Turkish has only one way to \emph{conjugate} a verb.
\item
Beyond mere inflexion, Turkish has manifold regular ways of building
up complex words from simple roots.
\item
Much Turkish grammar and vocabulary can be explained through
\emph{morphology;} but 
the explanation need not be cluttered up with many paradigms illustrating
the several means to the same end.
\item
Turkish does, like Finnish, show regular spelling variations
that correspond to \emph{vowel harmony} in speech.
\item
Turkish has many regular formulas for use in social interactions.
\end{enumerate}
The present notes aim to illustrate or demonstrate these points.  
\begin{comment}
  


The notes are a
sort of guide for for the visitor to Turkey, though they cannot
replace a phrasebook, much less a text like \emph{Turkish in Three
  Months.}  The
notes are for the visitor who wants a taste of the \emph{logic} of the
language. 

\end{comment}

\section{Origins}

The Persian language is Indo-European; the Arabic language is Semitic.
The Turkish language is neither Indo-European nor Semitic.  However,
Turkish has borrowed many words from Persian and Arabic.

English too has borrowed many words from another language---French---, but for
opposite or complementary reasons.
In the eleventh century, the Normans invaded England and
spread their language there; but Sel\c cuk
Turks overran Persia and adopted Persian, with its Arabic
borrowings, as their administrative and literary language
\cite[p.~xx]{Lewis2}.  Sel\c cuks also invaded Anatolia, defeating the
Byzantine Emperor in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert.\footnote{The
  Turkish name for the town is Malazgirt; the order of battle there is shown
  in an historical atlas used by schoolchildren in Turkey.}  

More
barbarians invaded Anatolia from the west: the Crusaders.
Finally, from the ruins of
the Byzantine and Sel\c cuk Empires, arose the Ottoman Empire.
Ottoman Turkish freely borrowed words from Persian and Arabic
\cite{Redhouse}.  Some Arabic and Persian words have been retained in
the language of the Turkish Republic since its founding in 1923;
others have been replaced, either by
neologisms fashioned in the Turkish style, or by borrowings from
European languages like French. 

\section{Alphabet}

Ottoman Turkish was generally\footnote{However, in the museum in Milas (the
  Mylasa mentioned in Herodotus) for example, there is a stone
  with a Turkish inscription in Greek letters.} written in the Arabic or
  Arabo-Persian alphabet. 
Since 1928, 
Turkish has been written in an 
alphabet derived from the Latin.
To obtain the Turkish from the English alphabet:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
throw out (\letter Q,~\letter q), (\letter W,~\letter w), and (\letter
X,~\letter x);
\item
replace the letter (\letter I,~\letter i) with the two letters
(\letter I,~\letter {\i}) and 
(\letter {\.I},~\letter i); and
\item
introduce the new letters (\letter{\c C},~\letter{\c c}), (\letter
{\u G},~\letter {\u g}), (\letter {\"O},~\letter {\"o}), (\letter {\c
  S},~\letter {\c s}), (\letter {\"U},~\letter {\"u}). 
\end{enumerate}
In alphabetical order, the 29 Turkish letters are:
\begin{center}
  \letter{A}\,   \letter{B}\,   \letter{C}\,    \letter{\c C}\, \letter{D}\,
  \letter{E}\,   \letter{F}\,   \letter{G}\,    \letter{\u G}\, \letter{H}\,
  \letter{I}\,   \letter{\.I}\, \letter{J}\,    \letter{K}\,    \letter{L}\,
  \letter{M}\,   \letter{N}\,   \letter{O}\,    \letter{\"O}\,  \letter{P}\,
  \letter{R}\,   \letter{S}\,   \letter{\c S}\, \letter{T}\,    \letter{U}\,
  \letter{\"U}\, \letter{V}\,   \letter{Y}\,    \letter{Z}. 
\end{center}
There are 8 vowels---\letter{a, e, \i, i, o, \"o, u, \"u}---and their
names are themselves.  The remaining 21 letters are consonants.  The
name of a consonant $x$ is $x$\letter e, with
one exception: \letter{\u g} is \Tur{yumu\c sak ge,} \Eng{soft \letter g.}

\section{Pronunciation}

Turkish words are spelled as they are spoken.  They are usually spoken
as they are spelled, although some words taken from Persian and Arabic
are pronounced in ways that are not fully reflected in
spelling.\footnote{This is by design: the alphabet was intended for
  transcribing 
  `pure' spoken Turkish \cite[pp.~189~f.]{Zurcher}.  However, a circumflex
  might be used to indicate a 
  peculiarity, or a distinction such as that between the Persian \Tur{k\^ar}
  \Eng{profit} and the Turkish
  \Tur{kar} \Eng{snow;} but the circumflex does not affect the alphabetical
  order of a word.}  Except in these loanwords, there is no variation
between long and short vowels.\footnote{I shall say presently that
  \letter{\u g} lengthens the preceding vowel; but one can think of
  the extra length as belonging to the consonant.}  There is hardly
any variation between stressed and unstressed syllables.

According to their pronunciation, the 8 Turkish vowels correspond to the
vertices of a cube.  I propose to understand all of the vowels as
deviations 
from the dotless letter~\letter{\i;} so I place this vowel at
the origin of Cartesian 3-space.  As
fits its simple written form,~\letter {\i} is pronounced by relaxing
the mouth 
completely, but keeping the teeth nearly clenched: the opening of the
mouth will then be like a sideways~\letter{\i.}  The Turkish national
drink \Tur{rak\i} is \emph{not} pronounced like \Eng{Rocky:} in the latter
syllable of \emph{this,} the tongue is too far forward.  Relax the
tongue in the latter syllable, letting it fall back; \emph{then} you can
ask for a glass of \Tur{rak\i.} 

The letter
\letter{\i} is the 
\textbf{back, unround, close} 
vowel.  Other vowels deviate from this by being \textbf{front, round,}
or \textbf{open.}  Physically, these deviations correspond to
movements of the tongue, lips, and jaw; in my geometric conception,
they correspond respectively to movement in the $x$-,
$y$-, and $z$-directions (right, up, and forward).  For later discussion
of vowel harmony, I let \letter{\#} stand for a generic close
vowel; \letter@, for a generic unround, open vowel.\footnote{I do
  not know of anybody else who uses this notation.  According to Lewis
\cite[I, 34, p.~17]{Lewis2}, some people write \Tur{-ler$^2$,} for
example, to indicate that there are two possibilies for the vowel;
instead, I shall write 
\Tur{-l@r.}  Likewise, instead of \Tur{-in$^4$,} I shall write \Tur{-\#n}.} 
See Figure~\ref{fig:vowels}.
%The vowels can be tabulated and depicted thus:
\begin{figure}
  \begin{tabular}[b]{|c|c|c|c|c|c|}\hline
&\letter{\i}  &$(0,0,0)$&back&&\\\cline{2-4}
&\letter i    &$(1,0,0)$&front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{unround}&\\\cline{2-5}
\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\letter{\#}}
  &\letter u  &$(0,1,0)$&back&&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{close}\\\cline{2-4} 
  &\letter{\"u} &$(1,1,0)$&front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{round}&\\\hline
&\letter a    &$(0,0,1)$&back&&\\\cline{2-4}
\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\letter@}
  &\letter e  &$(1,0,1)$&front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{unround}&\\\cline{1-5}
\multicolumn{2}{|r|}{\letter o}    
   &$(0,1,1)$&back&&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{open}\\\cline{1-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|r|}{\letter{\"o}} 
   &$(1,1,1)$&front&\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{round}&\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\hfill
  \begin{pspicture}%[0.5]
(-2,-2)(2,2)
\rput(-1.6,1.6){\circlenode{o}{\Large \letter o}}
\rput(-1.6,-1.6){\circlenode{a}{\Large \letter a}}
\rput(1.6,-1.6){\circlenode{e}{\Large \letter e}}
\rput(1.6,1.6){\circlenode{oe}{\Large \letter{\"o}}}
\ncline{o}{a}
\ncline{e}{oe}
\ncline{oe}{o}
\rput(-0.8,0.8){\circlenode{u}{\letter u}}
\rput(-0.8,-0.8){\circlenode{I}{\letter{\i}}}
\rput(0.8,-0.8){\circlenode{i}{\letter i}}
\rput(0.8,0.8){\circlenode{ue}{\letter{\"u}}}
\ncline{o}{u}
\ncline{a}{I}
\ncline{e}{i}
\ncline{oe}{ue}
\rput(0,-1.1){unround}
\rput(0,1.2){round}
\rput(-1.2,0){back}
\rput(1.2,0){front}
\rput(0,0.3){close}
\rput(0,-1.6){\rnode{@}{\psframebox{\Large\letter @}}}
\rput(0,-0.2){\rnode{sh}{\psframebox{\small\letter{\#}}}}
\psset{linestyle=dotted}
\ncline{a}{@}
\ncline{@}{e}
\ncline{u}{I}
\ncline{I}{i}
\ncline{i}{ue}
\ncline{ue}{u}
%\psgrid(-2,-2)(2,2)
%    \psset{viewpoint=-1 -1 1}
%\ThreeDput[normal=0 0 1]{\psgrid(-3,-3)(6,6)}
  \end{pspicture}
\caption{Turkish vowels}\label{fig:vowels}
\end{figure}

The vowel \letter a is like \Eng{uh} in English;
  \letter{\"o} and \letter{\"u} are as 
in German, or are like the French \Eng{eu} and \Eng{u}; and Turkish
  \letter{u} is 
like the short English \Eng{o\u{\textcompwordmark}o.}  Diphthongs are
  obtained by addition of 
\letter y: so, \Tur{ay} is English long \Eng{\=\i,} and \Tur{ey} is English
long \Eng{\=a.}  

The consonants that need mention are: \letter c, like English \Eng{j;}
\letter{\c c}, like English \Eng{ch;}
\letter{\u g}, which lengthens the vowel that precedes
it (and never begins a word); \letter{j}, as in French; and \letter{\c
  s}, like English \Eng{sh.}  Consonants doubled are held longer.

\section{Everyday words and expressions}\label{sect:day}

By learning some of these, you can impress or amuse people, or at
least avoid embarrassing yourself when trying to open a door or visit the
loo. 

\Tur{L\"utfen/Te\c sekk\"urler/Bir \c sey de\u gil}
\Eng{Please/Thanks/It's nothing.}\footnote{Literally, \Eng{One thing [it is]
    not.}}\\
\Tur{Evet/hay\i r} \Eng{Yes/no.}  \Tur{Var/yok} \Eng{There is/there
  isn't.}
\Tur{Affedersiniz} \Eng{Excuse me.}\footnote{\Tur{Af, aff-} is from an
  Arabic verbal noun, meaning
  \emph{a pardoning;} and \Tur{edersiniz} is the second-person plural
  (or polite) aorist (present) form of \Tur{et-} \Eng{make.}  Turkish
  makes a lot of verbs with \Tur{et-} this way.  For example, thanks
  is also expressed by \Tur{Te\c sekk\"ur ederim} \Eng{I make a thanking.}
Grammatically, \Tur{affedersiniz} is
a statement, not a command; but it is used as a request.}\\
\Tur{Efendim} \Eng{Madam or sir}\footnote{\Tur{Efendi}
  is from the Greek
  \selectlanguage{polutonikogreek}a>uj'enthc\selectlanguage{english},
  whence also English \Eng{authentic.}} (a polite way to address anybody,
including when answering the telephone).\\    
\Tur{Merhaba} \Eng{Hello.} \Tur{G\"unayd\i n} \Eng{Good
morning.}\footnote{Literally \Eng{Day [is] bright.}}\\ 
\Tur{Ho\c s geldiniz/Ho\c s bulduk} \Eng{Welcome}/its
  response.\footnote{Literally \Eng{You came well/We found well.}}\\
\Tur{\.Iyi g\"unler/ak\c samlar/geceler} \Eng{Good
day/evening/night.}\footnote{The suffix \Tur{-l@r} makes these
  expressions formally plural.}\\
\Tur{G\"ule g\"ule} \Eng{Fare
  well\footnote{Literally \Eng{[Go] smiling.}}} (said to the person
  leaving);\\
\Tur{Allaha \i smarlad\i k} or \Tur{Ho\c s\c ca kal\i n}
\Eng{Good
  bye\footnote{Literally \Eng{To-God we-commended} and
    \Eng{Pleasantly stay.}}} (said to the
person staying behind).


\Tur{Bay/Bayan} \Eng{Mr/Ms,} or \Eng{gentlemen's/ladies'} toilet,
  clothing, \&c.\\ 
\Tur{Beyefendi/Han\i mefendi} \Eng{Sir/Madam.}\\
\Tur{\.Itiniz/\c cekiniz} \Eng{Push/pull} the door;
\Tur{giri\c s/\c c\i k\i \c s} \Eng{entrance/exit;}\\ 
\Tur{sol/sa\u g} \Eng{left/right;} \Tur{so\u guk/s\i cak} \Eng{cold/hot.}

\Tur{Nas\i ls\i n\i z?/\.Iyiyim, te\c sekk\"urler; siz?/Ben de iyiyim.}\\
\Eng{How are you?/I'm fine, thanks; you?/I'm also fine.}\footnote{The
  second-person forms
  here are plural or polite; the familier singular forms are
  \Tur{Nas\i ls\i n?/\dots sen?}} 

\Tur{Elinize sa\u gl\i k} \Eng{Health to your hand.}  This is a standard
compliment to a
chef, who will reply: \Tur{Afiyet olsun} \Eng{May it be healthy.}  Anybody
may say \Tur{Afiyet olsun} to somebody who is eating, is about to eat,
or has finished eating.  The closest expression that I know in English
is not English: \Eng{bon app\'etit.}

\Tur{Kolay gelsin} \Eng{May [your work] come easy.}\\
\Tur{Ge\c cmi\c s olsun}  \Eng{May [your sickness, difficulty, \&c.]
be [something that has] passed} (this can also be said \emph{after}
the trouble has passed). 

\Tur{\.In\c sallah} \Eng{If God wills:} that is, if all goes according to
plan.\\
\Tur{Ma\c sallah} \Eng{May God protect from the evil eye:} used
to avoid jinxing what one praises; also written on vehicles as if to
compensate for 
maniacal driving.\\
\Tur{Allah korusun} \Eng{May God protect:} also written on vehicles.\\
\Tur{Rica ederim\footnote{Literally \Eng{I
      make a request;} the same kind of formation as
    \Tur{affedersiniz.}}} \Eng{I request,} or \Tur{Esta\u gfurullah,}
can be used with the sense of \Eng{I don't deserve 
  such praise!} or \Eng{Don't say such [bad] things about yourself!}\\
\Tur{\c Cok ya\c say\i n!/Siz de g\"or\"un} \Eng{Live long!/You too see
  [long life]} (the response to a sneeze, and the sneezer's
acknowledgement\footnote{The familiar forms are \Tur{\c Cok ya\c
    sa/sen de g\"or.}}).\\
\Tur{Tanr\i/tanr\i\c ca} \Eng{god/goddess.}

\Tur{S\i f\i r, bir, iki, \"u\c c, d\"ort, be\c s, alt\i, yedi, sekiz,
  dokuz} 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;\\
\Tur{on, yirmi, otuz, k\i rk, elli, altm\i\c s, yetmi\c s, seksen,
  doksan} 10, 20, 30, \dots, 90;\\
\Tur{y\"uz, bin, milyon, milyar}
  $10^2$, $10^3$, $(10^3)^2$, $(10^3)^3$;\\
\Tur{y\"uz k\i rk dokuz milyon be\c s y\"uz doksan yedi bin sekiz
  y\"uz yetmi\c s} 149,597,870.

\Tur{Daha/en} \Eng{more/most;} \Tur{az} \Eng{less,} \Tur{en az}
\Eng{least.} 

\Tur{Al-/sat-/ver-} \Eng{take, buy/sell/give;}\\
\Tur{al\i\c s/sat\i\c s/al\i\c sveri\c s} buying (rate)/selling
(rate)/shopping. 

\Tur{\.In-/bin-/gir-/\c c\i k} \Eng{go: down, off/onto/into/out, up;}\\
\Tur{a\c sa\u g\i/yukar\i} \Eng{lower/upper;}
\Tur{alt/\"ust} \Eng{bottom/top.}

\Tur{Renk} \Eng{color;}
\Tur{\c cay/kahve} \Eng{tea/coffee;} \Tur{portakal} \Eng{orange;}
\Tur{turun\c c} \Eng{bitter orange;}\\  
\Tur{k\i rm\i z\i/portakalrengi} or \Tur{turuncu/sar\i}
\Eng{red/orange/yellow;}\\  
\Tur{ye\c sil/mavi/mor}
\Eng{green/blue/purple;}\\
\Tur{kara} or \Tur{siyah/ak} or \Tur{beyaz/kahverengi}
\Eng{black/white/brown.} 

  \Tur{Kim, ne, ne zaman, nerede, nereye, nereden, ni\c cin, nas\i l,
  ka\c c, ne kadar?}\\  
\Eng{who, what, when, where, whither, whence, why, how, how many, how
  much?}  
\begin{comment}
  

\setlength{\tabcolsep}{0.5pt}
\begin{tabular}{cccccccccc}
  \Tur{Kim,} & \Tur{ne,} & \Tur{ne zaman,} & \Tur{nerede,} & \Tur{nereye,}
  & \Tur{nereden,} & \Tur{ni\c cin,} & \Tur{nas\i l,} & \Tur{ka\c c,} &
  \Tur{ne kadar?}\\  
\Eng{who,} & \Eng{what,} & \Eng{when,} & \Eng{where,} & \Eng{whither,} &
  \Eng{whence,} & \Eng{why,} & \Eng{how,} & \Eng{how many,} & \Eng{how
  much?} 
\end{tabular}


\end{comment}

\section{A bit of grammar}\label{sect:bit}

The Turkish \textbf{interrogatives} just given---\Tur{kim, ne, ne zaman,}
  \&c.---also function as rudimentary relatives: \Tur{Ne zaman
  gelecekler
  bilmiyorum} \Eng{I don't know when they will come} (literally
  \Eng{What time come-will-they know-not-I}).  But most of the work
  done in English by relative clauses is done in Turkish by verb-forms,
  namely participles: \Eng{the book that I gave you} in Turkish becomes
  \Tur{size verdi\u gim kitap:} \Eng{you-wards given-by-me book}, or
  \Eng{the book given to you by me.} 

In Turkish, you can describe somebody for a
long time without giving any clue to the sex of that person:  there
is no \textbf{gender.}  Even
accomplished Turkish speakers of English confuse \Eng{he} and
\Eng{she:} in Turkish
there is a unique third-person singular pronoun, \Tur{(o, on-),}
meaning indifferently \Eng{he/she/it.}  In translations in these
notes, I shall use
\Eng{sie} in place of \Eng{he/she,} and \Eng{hir} in place of
\Eng{him/her/his.} 

\section{Polysyllabism and euphony}\label{sect:avrupa}

Turkish is \textbf{agglutinative} or \textbf{synthetic.}  Written as
two words, but pronounced as 
one, is the question  \Tur{Avrupal\i la\c
  st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i zdan m\i s\i n\i z?}  This can be analyzed
as a stem with 11 suffixes, which I number:
\begin{center}
  \Tur{Avrupa\sufflist l\i\nsuff la\nsuff\c s\nsuff t\i
  r\nsuff ama\nsuff d\i k\nsuff lar\nsuff \i m\i z\nsuff dan\nsuff{} m\i\nsuff
s\i n\i z\nsuff?}  
\end{center}
The suffixes
translate mostly as separate words in English, in almost the reverse order:
\Eng{Are\msf{10} you\msf{11} one-of\;\msf9 those\msf7 whom\msf6 we\msf8
could-not\,\msf5 \emph{Europeanize} (make\msf4
be\msf2come\msf3 Europe\msf0an\msf1)?}\;\footnote{The numbered
  correspondence between Turkish and English is somewhat strained
  here.  The interrogative particle \Tur{m\i} strictly corresponds to
  the \emph{inversion} of \Eng{you are} to form \Eng{are you.}  Also,
  one might treat \Tur{-la\c s} as an indivisible suffix.}


The \textbf{interrogative particle} (with suffix) \Tur{m\i s\i n\i z} in
  \Tur{Avrupal\i la\c
  st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i zdan m\i\-s\i n\i z?}\ is
  \textbf{enclitic:} in particular, 
it shows \textbf{vowel harmony} with the preceding word.  Moreover,
  each suffix in \Tur{Avrupal\i la\c
  st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i zdan m\i s\i n\i z?}\ harmonizes with the
  preceding syllable.  If we
  change \Eng{Europeanize} to \Eng{Turkify} in the question, it becomes
 \Tur{T\"urkle\c stiremediklerimizden misiniz?}

In \Tur{Avrupal\i} \Eng{European,} I understand the suffix \Tur{-l\i}
as a specialization of \Tur{-l\#.}
The last vowel of \Tur{Avrupa} is a back, unround vowel; so, when 
\Tur{-l\#} is attached to \Tur{Avrupa}, then \letter{\#,} the generic
close vowel, settles down to the close vowel that is back and unround,
namely~\letter{\i}.
(In the geometrical scheme above, \letter{\i} is the vowel in 
the plane $z=0$ that is closest to $(0,0,1)$.)

Likewise, the suffix \Tur{-la\c s}
is a specialization of \Tur{-l@\c s,} with a generic unround, open
vowel.  Since \letter{\i} is back, the \letter@ becomes the back
unround, open vowel in the formation of \Tur{Avrupal\i la\c s-}
\Eng{become European.}

When the modern Turkish alphabet was invented, something like my
`generic' vowels 
\letter{\#} and \letter@ could have been introduced for use in writing down
the harmonizing suffixes.  But then the Turkish alphabet would have needed
31 letters, since the distinct `specialized' vowels are still needed
for root-words (and some non-harmonizing suffixes):
\begin{example}
  \begin{tabular}{ll|ll|ll}
\Tur{an}&\Eng{moment}&\Tur{bal}&\Eng{honey}&\Tur{al-}&\Eng{take,~buy}\\
\Tur{en}&\Eng{most, -est}&\Tur{bel}&\Eng{waist}&\Tur{el}&\Eng{hand}\\
        &&\Tur{b\i ld\i rc\i n}&\Eng{quail}&\Tur{\i l\i k}&\Eng{tepid}\\ 
\Tur{in-} &\Eng{go down}&\Tur{bil-}&\Eng{know}&\Tur{il}&\Eng{province}\\
\Tur{on}&\Eng{ten}&\Tur{bol}&\Eng{ample}&\Tur{ol-}&\Eng{become}\\
\Tur{\"on}&\Eng{front}&\Tur{b\"ol-}&\Eng{divide}&\Tur{\"ol-}&\Eng{die}\\
\Tur{un}&\Eng{flour}&\Tur{bul-}&\Eng{find}&\Tur{ula\c s-}&\Eng{arrive}\\
 \Tur{\"un}&\Eng{fame}&\Tur{b\"ulb\"ul}&\Eng{nightingale}&\Tur{\"ule\c s-}&\Eng{share}
  \end{tabular}
\end{example}

As for consonants, they may change \emph{voice,} depending on phonetic context.
In particular, some consonants oscillate within the following pairs: \Tur{t/d;
  p/b; \c c/c; k/\u g.}

Agglutination or synthesis can be seen on signs all over:  An
\Tur{in\sufflist dir\nsuff im\nsuff} is an instance\msf2 of
causing\msf1 to go-down\msf0, that is, a reduction, a \emph{sale:} you
will see the word in shop-windows;
\Tur{in\sufflist il\nsuff ir\nsuff} means \Eng{is\msf2 got\msf1
down-from\msf0, is an exit}---it's written at the
rear door of city busses.

As the last two examples may suggest, not only can one word feature
more than one suffix, but also, many different words can be formed
from one root:

  \begin{multicols}{3}
  \Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur-} \Eng{kill}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md en} \Eng{killer}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md esiye} \Eng{murderously}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md men}\footnote{Disused neologism for \Tur{cell\^at.}} \Eng{executioner}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md men\md lik}\footnote{Disused neologism for
  \Tur{cell\^atl\i k.}} \Eng{(his post)}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md t-} \Eng{have} (s.o.) \Eng{killed}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"uc\"u} \Eng{deadly, fatal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"ul-} \Eng{be killed}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md d\"ur\md\"ul\md en} \mbox{\Eng{murder victim}}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md esiye} \Eng{to death}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md et} (prov.) \Eng{plague}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md eyaz-} \Eng{almost die}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md g\"un} \Eng{lifeless, withered}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md g\"un\md l\"uk} \Eng{lifelessness}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez} \Eng{immortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez\md le\c s\md tir-} \mbox{\Eng{immortalize}}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md mez\md lik} \Eng{immortality}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md m\"u\c s} \Eng{dead}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"u} \Eng{corpse}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"uk} \Eng{deathly looking}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"u\md l\"uk}\footnote{Disused neologism for \Tur{morg.}} \Eng{morgue}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um} \Eng{death}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md c\"ul} \Eng{mortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"u} \Eng{transitory}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"uk} \Eng{burial money}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md l\"u\md l\"uk} \Eng{mortality}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"u} \Eng{deathlike}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"uz} \Eng{immortal}\\
\Tur{\"ol\md\"um\md s\"uz\md l\"uk} \mbox{\Eng{immortality}}
\Tur{\"ol\md \"un-}\footnote{This would be \emph{passive,} if
  \Tur{\"ol-} were transitive; \Tur{\"ol-} is instransitive, so
  \Tur{\"ol\md\"un-} must be \emph{impersonal,} referring to the dying
  of some generic person.  See
  \S\S~\ref{sect:conj} and~\ref{sect:say}.}
  \end{multicols}



\section{Some common suffixes}\label{sect:suffixes}

The meanings of the root-words in the examples here are probably
obvious, but they are given later in the Dictionary
(\S~\ref{sect:dict}): 

\Tur{-c\#} \Eng{person involved
with:} \Tur{kebap\c c\i} \Eng{kebab-seller,} \Tur{kilit\c ci}
\Eng{locksmith,}
\Tur{bal\i k\c c\i} \Eng{fishmonger,} \Tur{dedikoducu} \Eng{rumor-monger,}
\Tur{ga\-zeteci} \Eng{journalist or news\-agent.}

\Tur{-c@} \Eng{language of:} \Tur{T\"urk\c ce} \Eng{Turkish} (the
language of the Turks), \Tur{Hollandaca} \Eng{Dutch.}

\Tur{-l\#/-s\#z} \Eng{including/excluding:} 
  \Tur{s\"utl\"u/s\"uts\"uz} \Eng{with/without milk,}\\
\Tur{\c se\-kerli/\c sekersiz} \Eng{sweetened/sugar-free,} \Tur{etli/etsiz}
  \Eng{containing meat/meatless;}\\ 
also \Tur{Hollandal\i} \Eng{Dutch
  (person),}\footnote{Somebody who does not wish to confuse ethnicity
  with nationality will refer to a citizen of Turkey as
  \Tur{T\"urkiyeli} rather than the usual \Tur{T\"urk.}}
  \Tur{k\"oyl\"u} \Eng{villager,} \Tur{sar\i l\i} \Eng{(person) dressed
  in yellow.} 

\Tur{-l\#k} \Eng{container of} or \Eng{pertaining to:}
\Tur{tuzluk} \Eng{salt cellar,} 
\Tur{kimlik} \Eng{identity,}\\
\Tur{kitapl\i k} \Eng{bookcase,}  
\Tur{g\"unl\"uk} \Eng{daily} or \Eng{diary,} 
\Tur{gecelik} \Eng{nightly} or \Eng{nightgown.} 

\Tur{-da\c s} \Eng{mate:} \Tur{arka/arkada\c s}
\Eng{back/friend,\footnote{``I am one, sir, that comes to tell you
    your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two
    backs''---Iago in Shakespeare's \emph{Othello.}  But in Turkish, a
    friend is not necessarily a lover, but is rather somebody with
    whom you would
    stand back to back while fending off the enemy with your swords.}}
\Tur{yol/yolda\c s} \Eng{road/comrade,}\\ 
\Tur{\c ca\u g/\c ca\u gda\c s} \Eng{era/contemporary,}
\Tur{kar\i n/karde\c s} \Eng{belly/sibling,}\footnote{That's right,
  there's no vowel harmony here, nor in the next example.}\\
\Tur{meslek/meslekta\c s} \Eng{profession/colleague.}

\Tur{-l@} (makes verbs from nouns and adjectives): \Tur{ba\c sla-}
  \Eng{make a head:
  begin;} \Tur{k\"opekle-} \Eng{make like a dog: cringe;}\footnote{The
  example is in \cite[XIV, 22, p.~227]{Lewis2}, but it appears that
  \Tur{k\"opekle-} normally means \Eng{dog-paddle,} while \Eng{cringe} is
  \Tur{k\"opekle\c s-.}}
  \Tur{kilitle-} \Eng{make locked: lock;} \Tur{temizle-} \Eng{make
  clean: clean.} 

\Tur{-\#nc\#} \Eng{-th:} \Tur{birinci, ikinci, \"u\c c\"unc\"u,
  d\"ord\"unc\"u} 
\Eng{first, second, third, fourth;}\\ 
\Tur{ka\c c\i nc\i?} \Eng{in which place?  how manyeth?} \Tur{sonuncu}
  \Eng{last.} 

\Tur{-(\c s)@r} \Eng{each:} \Tur{birer, iki\c ser} \Eng{one each, two
  each;}
\Tur{ka\c car?} \Eng{how many each?}

\Tur{-(\#)z: ikiz, \"u\c c\"uz} \Eng{twin(s), triplet(s).}

\Tur{-l@r} \Eng{more than one of} (not normally
used if a definite number is named):\\
\Tur{ba\c slar} \Eng{heads;} \Tur{be\c s ba\c s}: \Eng{five head;} \Tur{ki\c
  siler} \Eng{people;} \Tur{on iki ki\c si} \Eng{twelve person.}

\section{Suffixes}\label{sect:suf}

Turkish grammarians distinguish between \textbf{constructive} and
\textbf{inflexional} suffixes.  
Words with inflexional suffixes do not
appear in the dictionary; words with constructive suffixes (usually) do.
Of the suffixes listed in \S~\ref{sect:suffixes}, only \Tur{-l@r} is
inflexional (but for \Tur{-c@} see \S~\ref{sect:nouns}).  

\begin{figure}[t]
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{|r|r|r|r|r|r|}\hline
person: &\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{1st}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{2nd}&3rd\\\hline
number: & sing. & pl. & sing. & pl. & \\\hline\hline
pronoun & \Tur{ben} & \Tur{biz} & \Tur{sen} & \Tur{siz} & \Tur{o, on-}\\\hline
suffix of \textbf{possession} & \Tur{-(\#)m}& \Tur{-(\#)m\#z} & \Tur{-(\#)n} &
\Tur{-(\#)n\#z}& \Tur{-(s)\#}\\\hline 
\textbf{predicative} suffix & \Tur{-(y)\#m} & \Tur{-(y)\#z} & \Tur{-s\#n}
& \Tur{-s\#n\#z} & -\\\hline
\textbf{verbal} suffix & \Tur{-m} & \Tur{-k} & \Tur{-n} & \Tur{-n\#z} &
-\\\hline
\textbf{imperative} %\footnotemark{} 
suffix & \Tur{-(y)@y\#m} & \Tur{-(y)@l\#m} & -
& \Tur{-(y)\#n(\#z)} & \Tur{-s\#n} \\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Personal pronouns and suffixes}\label{table:person}
\end{figure}
There are several series of \textbf{personal} inflexional suffixes;
they are in Figure~\ref{table:person} above,
with the personal pronouns for
comparison.\footnote{The names in the table are mine.}

The \textbf{plural} ending \Tur{-l@r} combines with the third-person
forms here to make
\Tur{onlar, -l@r\#, 
  -l@r, -l@r, -s\#nl@r;} but the distinct plural forms of the
third-person endings are not always used.

Second-person plural forms are used politely to address individuals,
as in French.  In examples below, I use archaic English
second-person singular 
forms---\Eng{thou, thee,} \&c.---to translate the corresponding Turkish
singular forms.

A \textbf{suffix of possession} attaches to a noun to show the person of the
\emph{possessor of} the named entity:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{kitab\i m} \Eng{my book;} \Tur{a\u gam} \Eng{my lord.}
\end{example}
 The suffix does \emph{not} indicate
that this entity \emph{is} a possessor of something else: that job would be
done by the \emph{possessive case-ending,} discussed below in
\S~\ref{sect:nouns}. 

A \textbf{predicative suffix} can make a complete sentence: it turns an
expression into a predicate whose subject is the person indicated:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{kitab\i m} \Eng{I am a book;} \Tur{a\u gay\i m} \Eng{I am lord.}
\end{example}
The ending \Tur{-d\#r}\footnote{It derives from an ancient verb-form
  meaning \Eng{sie stands} \cite[VIII, 3, p.~93]{Lewis2}.} is also
predicative in this way, in the third 
person. 

Predicative suffixes are also used with some verb-forms.
\textbf{Verbal suffixes} 
are used \emph{only} with verb-forms; likewise for the \textbf{imperative
suffixes.}

Nouns are \textbf{declined,} roughly as in Latin: they take
\textbf{case-}endings.  Adjectives are \emph{not} inflected to
`agree' in any way with the nouns that they
modify.  Comparison of adjectives is achieved with the particles
\Tur{daha, en,} and \Tur{az} given 
above, in \S~\ref{sect:day}; these precede adjectives.

\section{Parts of speech, and word-order}\label{sect:parts}

Besides nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs, Turkish has adverbs,
conjunctions, and particles, in particular \emph{postpositions.}

Some Turkish \textbf{conjunctions} are given in
Fig.~\ref{fig:conjunct}.  (There, \Tur{de} is a specialization of the
harmonizing enclitic \Tur{d@;} for \Tur{ise,} see \S~\ref{sect:conj}.)
\nocite{Nesin}

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{|c|l|l|}\hline
$\lnot A$  & \Tur{$A$ de\u gil} & \Eng{not $A$}\\\hline
$A\land B$ & $A$ \Tur{ve} $B$ & $A$ \Eng{and} $B$\\
           & $A$ \Tur{ile} $B$ &\\\cline{2-3}
           & \Tur{$A$; $B$ de} & $A$; $B$ \Eng{too}\\\cline{2-3}
& $A$ \Tur{ama} $B$ & $A$ \Eng{but} $B$\\
& $A$ \Tur{fakat} $B$ &\\
& $A$ \Tur{ancak} $B$ &\\\cline{2-3}
& \Tur{hem} $A$ \Tur{hem} $B$ & \Eng{both $A$ and $B$}\\\hline
$A\lor B$ & $A$ \Tur{veya} $B$ & \Eng{$A$ or $B$}\\
          & \Tur{$A$ ya da $B$} &\\\cline{2-3}
&\Tur{ya $A$ ya $B$} & \Eng{either $A$ or $B$}\\\hline
$\lnot A\land\lnot B$ & \Tur{ne $A$ ne $B$} & \Eng{neither $A$ nor
           $B$}\\\hline
$A\to B$ & \Tur{$A$ ise $B$} & \Eng{if $A$ then $B$}\\
         & \Tur{e\u ger $A$ ise, o zaman $B$} &\\\hline
$A\leftrightarrow B$ & \Tur{$A$ ancak ve ancak $B$} & \Eng{$A$ if and
      only if $B$}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Some conjunctions}\label{fig:conjunct}
\end{figure}

\textbf{Postpositions} are somewhat like prepositions in English: they
do some work that might otherwise be done with case-endings.
The object of a postposition may be a case of a noun.
\begin{example}
  \Tur{gibi} \Eng{like,} 
  \Tur{kadar} \Eng{as far as,} 
  \Tur{do\u gru} \Eng{towards,}
  \Tur{dolay\i} \Eng{because of,}\\ 
  \Tur{g\"ore} \Eng{according to,} 
  \Tur{i\c cin} \Eng{for,} \Tur{ile} \Eng{with.}
\end{example}

The modifier \emph{usually} comes before the modified.  This means:
adjective (used attributively) precedes noun;
adverb precedes verb;
object of postposition precedes postposition.
In a sentence, subject precedes predicate;
objects precede verb;
indirect object precedes direct object.
But these are not absolute rules.

\section{Inflexion of nouns}\label{sect:nouns}

A Turkish noun can take inflexional endings, usually in
the following order:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
the {plural} ending, \Tur{-l@r;}
\item
a suffix of {possession;}
\item
a {case-}ending;
\item
a predicative suffix.
\end{enumerate}

%\subsection{Declension}

The \textbf{cases} of Turkish nouns include 
\begin{itemize}
\item
the \textbf{bare\footnote{Some say `nominative'; I'm translating the
  Turkish term \Tur{yal\i n.}} case,} the dictionary-form of a noun,
  used for subjects and
\emph{indefinite} direct objects;
  \item
the \textbf{possessive case,}\footnote{The term `genitive' is used, but some work
  done by genitive cases in other languages is done by the ablative in
  Turkish.} in \Tur{-(n)\#n;} 
\item
the \textbf{dative case,} in \Tur{-(y)@,} for indirect objects; 
\item
the \textbf{clarifying\footnote{Turkish \Tur{belirtme;} the Latin term
  `accusative' does not quite fit here.} 
case,} in \Tur{(y)\#,}
for \emph{definite} direct
objects;
\item
the \textbf{ablative case,} in \Tur{-d@n,} for that \emph{from which;} 
\item
the \textbf{locative case,} in \Tur{-d@,} for \emph{place where;}
\item
the \textbf{instrumental case,} in \Tur{-\#n,} obsolescent, mostly
replaced by 
the locative, or by the postposition \Tur{ile} \Eng{with,} which can
be suffixed as \Tur{-l@};
\item
the \textbf{relative\footnote{The Turkish term is \Tur{g\"orelik}
    \Eng{relation,} or else \Tur{e\c sitlik} \Eng{equality.}  Some
    grammarians \cite[p.~155]{Ozkirimli} \cite[p.~40]{Atabay} treat this
as a case; others \cite[p.~120]{Demir} \cite[p.~194]{Lewis2} don't.}
case,} in \Tur{-c@,} with meanings like \Eng{according to} or \Eng{in the
  manner of;} one use was given in \S~\ref{sect:suffixes}.
\end{itemize}
For example:
  \begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler g\"uzel\md dir; bana bir g\"ul al} \Eng{Roses are beautiful;
  buy me a rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"un diken\md i; g\"ul\md\"u koparmay\i n}
\Eng{Rose's thorn; don't pick \emph{the} rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md e/g\"ul\md den/g\"ul\md de} \Eng{to/from/on (a/the)
  rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul'ce} \Eng{according to G\"ul;} \Tur{\c cocuk\c ca}
\Eng{childishly} or \Eng{baby-talk.}\\
\Tur{Yaz\md\i n} \Eng{during the summer;} \Tur{G\"ul'le Ay\c se}
\Eng{Ay\c se and G\"ul;}\\
\Tur{b\i\c cak\md la kes-} \Eng{cut with a knife.}
  \end{example}
The singular personal pronouns \Tur{ben} and \Tur{sen}, declined, show
a vowel change in the dative: 
\begin{example}
  \Tur{ben/benim/bana/beni/benden/bende/benimle/bence}
\end{example}
and likewise for \Tur{sen.}  The third-person pronoun \Tur{o} is also
the demonstrative adjective \Eng{that;} other demonstratives are
\Tur{bu/bun-} \Eng{this} and \Tur{\c su/\c sun-} (for the thing pointed to).

%\subsection{Two kinds of person}

Nouns can indicate
{person} in two senses.
A suffix of possession shows the person of a possessor of the named
entity; a predicative suffix shows the person of the entity itself. 
Therefore the plural ending \Tur{-l@r} can show multiplicity of the entity
itself, its possessor, or the subject of which the entity is predicated.
However, the plural ending will not be used more than once in a word.
The plural ending can be used with
\Tur{-d@r} in either order, with different shades of meaning.
\begin{example}
\Tur{g\"ul\md\"um/g\"ul\md\"um\"uz/g\"ul\md\"un/g\"ul\md\"un\"uz}
  \Eng{my/our/thy/your rose;}\\ 
\Tur{g\"ul\md\"u/Deniz'in g\"ul\md\"u} \Eng{hir rose/Deniz's rose;}\\
\Tur{g\"ul\md ler\md i}
\Eng{their rose, their roses, hir roses.}\\ 
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"um/G\"ul\md\"uz/G\"ul\md s\"un/G\"ul\md s\"un\"uz}
\Eng{I/We/Thou/You are a rose.}\\ 
%\Eng{I am/We are/Thou art/You are a rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md d\"ur\md ler/G\"ul\md ler\md dir}
\Eng{They are roses/the roses.}\\
%\Tur{G\"ul\md\"um\md s\"un}  \Eng{Thou art my rose.}
\Tur{G\"ul\md ler\md im\md de\md siniz} \Eng{You are in my roses.}
%\Tur{Kendi\md m en k\"ot\"u d\"u\c sman\md \i m\md\i m\md d\i r}
%\Eng{I am my own worst enemy.}  
\end{example}
A sentence made from a noun with a predicative ending is
negated with \Tur{de\u gil;} the predicative ending is
added to this: 
\begin{example}
\Tur{G\"ul de\u gil\md im}
  \Eng{I am not a rose, I am not Rose.}
\end{example}

When two nouns are joined, even though the first doesn't name a
possessor of the second, the second tends to take the third-person
suffix of possession: \Tur{b\"ol\md\"um} \Eng{department;} \Tur{matematik
  b\"ol\md\"um\md\"u} 
\Eng{mathematics department.}  You can see this feature in business names:

\begin{example}
  \Tur{\.I\c s Banka\md s\i} \Eng{Business Bank;} \Tur{Tekirda\u g
  rak\i s\i} \Eng{Tekirda\u g [brand] rak\i.}
\end{example}
Still, the
plural ending, if used, precedes the suffix of possession:  
\begin{example}
  \Tur{deniz ana\md s\i, deniz ana\md lar\md\i}
\Eng{jellyfish}\footnote{literally \Eng{sea mother(s)}} (one or
several).
\end{example}

\section{Conjugation of verbs}\label{sect:conj}

There is no {verb} corresponding to the English \Eng{have.}
Possession is indicated by suffixes of possession.  The
\emph{existence} of possession (or anything else) is expressed by the 
(predicative) adjective \Tur{var;} non-existence is expressed by
\Tur{yok.} 
\begin{example}
 \Tur{G\"ul\md\"um var} \Eng{My rose exists; I have got a rose.}\\
\Tur{G\"ul\md\"um yok} \Eng{I have not got a rose.}
\end{example}

The dictionary-form of a verb is usually the \textbf{infinitive,} in
\Tur{-m@k;} remove this ending, and you have a \emph{stem.}  There
are two (or more) other kinds of verbal nouns that 
may be in the dictionary: one in \Tur{-m@,} resembling the English
\textbf{gerund;} and on in \Tur{-(y)\#\c s.}

\begin{example}
\Tur{okumak/okuma/okuyu\c s} \Eng{to read/reading/way of reading.}
\end{example}

The common {stem} in the examples is \Tur{oku-.}  This is the
dictionary-form in one dictionary \cite{Redhouse}, and I wish it were
so in all dictionaries, since then simple verbs would always come
before those obtained from them by means of constructive suffixes
(\S~\ref{sect:suf}).  Anyway, verbs are given as stems in these notes.

A finite Turkish verb generally consists of a simple stem, followed by
endings that I call \emph{vocal, dialectical, temporal} (or
\emph{temporal-modal}) and
\emph{personal.}  The vocal endings (indicating `voice') are generally
treated as constructive, and the dialectical
endings are inflexional; neither of these kinds of endings need be
present.  A verb without 
temporal and personal endings is a \textbf{stem.}  Although stems with
dialectical 
endings are not found in the dictionary, they can still be made
into verbal nouns.

\textbf{Vocal} endings may be found in a stem in
the following order:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
\textbf{reflexive:} \Tur{-(\#)n;}
\item
\textbf{reciprocal:} \Tur{-(\#)\c s;}
\item
\textbf{causative:} \Tur{-(d)\#r, -(\#)t, -@r} (depending on the verb);
\item
\textbf{passive} or \textbf{impersonal:} \Tur{-\#l, -(\#)n.}
\end{enumerate}
Two or more causative endings can be used.  A reciprocal and a causative
ending together make the \textbf{repetitive} ending, \Tur{-(\#)\c s\md
  t\#r.}
\begin{example}
\Tur{oku\md n-} \Eng{be read,}
\Tur{oku\md t-} \Eng{make [somebody] read,}\\ 
\Tur{\"ol-/\"ol\md d\"ur-/\"ol\md d\"ur\md t-/\"ol\md\"un-} (see
\S~\ref{sect:avrupa});\\ 
\Tur{sev-} \Eng{love,}
\Tur{sev\md i\c s-} \Eng{make love;}\\ 
\Tur{bul-} \Eng{find,}
\Tur{bul\md un-} \Eng{be;}\\
\Tur{ara-} \Eng{look for,} \Tur{ara\md \c s\md t\i r-} \Eng{do research.}   
\end{example}

\textbf{Dialectical}\footnote{I chose this word, having failed to find a
  better.  The six forms here can be analyzed as follows \cite[VIII,
  18(g), p.~109; VIII, 55, pp.~153~f.]{Lewis2}.  
The suffix \Tur{-m@} negates; 
the obsolete verb \Tur{u-} \Eng{be able,} negated, becomes the
  impotential suffix \Tur{-(y)@m@;}
the (living) verb \Tur{bil-} \Eng{know,} with a buffer,
  becomes the potential suffix \Tur{-(y)@bil.}  But you cannot combine
  these just as you please; only the six given formations are
  available.  However, there are a few other verbs that can be
  suffixed as \Tur{bil-} is; one example is \Tur{yaz-} in \Tur{\"ol\md
  eyaz-} (\S~\ref{sect:avrupa}).} 
endings indicate affirmation, denial, impossibility and the
  \emph{possibility} of these.  Strictly, \emph{lack} of a dialectical ending
  indicates affirmation; denial is with \Tur{-m@;} impossibility,
  \Tur{-(y)@m@;} possibility, \Tur{-(y)@bil:}
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{lrlr}
\Tur{oku-} & read; & \Tur{oku\md yabil-} & can read;\\
\Tur{oku\md ma-} & not read; & \Tur{oku\md ma\md yabil-} & may not read;\\
  \Tur{oku\md yama-} & cannot read; & \Tur{oku\md yama\md yabil-} &
  may be unable to read.
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
%\begin{example}
%\Tur{at} \Eng{horse;} \Tur{i\c c-} \Eng{drink, smoke;}\\
%  \Tur{At i\c c\md tir\md il\md eme\md yebil\md ir\md dir} \Eng{A
%  horse can perhaps not be made to drink.} 
%\end{example}

Again, a simple stem, possibly with vocal and dialectical endings added,
is still a
stem.  From this, we can make verbal nouns, such as the infinitive.
As a noun, the
infinitive has a locative case; especially with \Tur{-d\#r} added,
this may stand as a finite verb.  Likewise the gerund, with the ending
\Tur{-l\#} from \S~\ref{sect:suffixes} added:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Oku\md mak\md ta\md d\i r} \Eng{Sie\footnote{See \S~\ref{sect:bit}.} is
    engaged in reading.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md ma\md l\i}  \Eng{Sie must read.}
\end{example}

Also from a stem, 5 \textbf{participles}---verbal adjectives---are
obtained: 
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
\textbf{present,} in \Tur{-(y)@n;} 
\item
\textbf{future,} in \Tur{-(y)@c@k;} 
\item
one \textbf{past,} in \Tur{-d\#k;}
\item
another \textbf{past,} in \Tur{-m\#\c s;} 
\item
\textbf{aorist,}\footnote{\Tur{Geni\c s zaman} \Eng{broad tense;} see
 below.} 
 in \Tur{-(@)r} or \Tur{-\#r.}  
\end{enumerate}
Aorist
participles with negative or impotential stems are anomalous, so we
must speak of the \textbf{negative aorist,} in \Tur{-m@z,} and the
\textbf{impotential aorist,} in \Tur{-(y)@m@z.} 

A past participle in \Tur{-d\#k,} or the future participle, can take
a suffix of possession, indicating the person of the \emph{subject} of
the action indicated by the participle.
\begin{example}
  \Tur{oku\md du\u g\md um kitap} \Eng{book that I (did) read;}\\
\Tur{oku\md yaca\u g\md\i m kitap} \Eng{book that I shall read.}
\end{example}

The future, the aorist, and the \Tur{-m\#\c s}-past participles take
\emph{predicative} endings, thereby becoming finite verbs.  Since the
third-person predicative ending is empty, these participles themselves
may also be finite verbs:
\begin{example}
\Tur{Oku\md yacak} \Eng{Sie will read.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md r} \Eng{Sie reads, is a reader.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md maz} \Eng{Sie does not read.}\\
\Tur{Oku\md yamaz} \Eng{Sie is illiterate.}\\ 
\Tur{Oku\md mu\c s} \Eng{Sie read [in the past, according to what we
    are given to understand].}
\end{example}

There is a \textbf{present tense} formed with \Tur{-(\#)yor} and the
predicative endings:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Okuyor} \Eng{Sie is reading.}
\end{example}
A difference between the aorist and present tenses is also
illustrated in a comment\footnote{Quoted at \cite[VIII, 25,
    p.~117]{Lewis2}.} on Turkish driving habits: 
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Ba\c ska memleketlerde kazara \"ol\md \"ur\md ler; biz kazara
  ya\c s\i\md yor\md uz.}\\
\Eng{In other countries they die by accident; we are living
  by accident.}
\end{example}

There is a \textbf{definite past tense} in \Tur{-d\#,} and a
\textbf{conditional mood} in 
\Tur{-s@,} but the personal endings used in these forms are the
endings called
\emph{verbal} in \S~\ref{sect:suf} (Fig.~\ref{table:person}).  The
\textbf{imperative
  mood}\footnote{Strictly, this should be two moods, an imperative and an
  optative, each with its own series of endings.  The `imperative'
  endings given in Fig.~\ref{table:person} on
  p.~\pageref{table:person} are taken from both
  series; in my experience, they are the only endings in daily use.}
 is
formed by imperative endings, attached directly to stems:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Oku\md du} \Eng{Sie read [as I witnessed].}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md sa}  \Eng{If only sie would read!}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md sun}  \Eng{Let hir read, may sie read.}
\end{example}

The \textbf{interrogative particle} \Tur{m\#} (which appeared in
\S~\ref{sect:avrupa}) precedes the predicative endings, but follows
the other personal endings:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Oku\md mak\md ta m\i\md y\i m?} \Eng{Am I engaged in reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md ma\md l\i\ m\i\md y\i m?} \Eng{Must I read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yacak m\i\md y\i m?} \Eng{Am I going to read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md r\md um mu?} \Eng{Do I read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md ma\md m m\i?} \Eng{Do I not read?}\footnote{The
\Tur{-z} in the negative and impotential aorists is lost before
first-person endings.}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yama\md m m\i?} \Eng{Can I not read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md mu\c s mu\md yum?} \Eng{Did I supposedly read?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yor mu\md yum?} \Eng{Am I reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md dum mu?} \Eng{Did you see me reading?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md sa\md m m\i?} \Eng{Should I read, I wonder?}\\
  \Tur{Oku\md yay\i m m\i?} \Eng{Shall I read, do you want me to read?}
\end{example}

A finite verb, without a personal ending, can be called a
\textbf{base.}  
The suffixes that form participles and bases from stems can be called
\textbf{characteristics;} they are collected
in Fig.~\ref{fig:suf}.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{|l|l|c|c|}\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}& participle & base\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{necessitative} & & \Tur{-m@l\#}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}&& \Tur{-m@kt@}\\\cline{4-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{present}}&
  \raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{\Tur{-@n}}& 
  \Tur{-\#yor}\\\hline 
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{future}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(y)@cak}}\\\hline
      &positive&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(@)r, -\#r}}\\\cline{2-4}
aorist&negative&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-m@z}}\\\cline{2-4}
      &impotential&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-(y)@m@z}}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{}&\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\Tur{-m\#\c s}}\\\cline{3-4}
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{\raisebox{1.5ex}[0pt]{past}}&
   \Tur{-d\#k}&\Tur{-d\#}\\\hline 
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{conditional}&&\Tur{-s@}\\\hline
\multicolumn{2}{|l|}{imperative}&&\Tur{-}\\\hline
  \end{tabular}
\caption{Characteristics of verbs}\label{fig:suf}
\end{center}

\end{figure}
\textbf{Compound tenses} are formed by means of
the \textbf{defective verb} \Tur{i-} \Eng{be.}  The stem \Tur{i-} takes no
vocal or dialectical endings.  It forms no verbal nouns.  It \emph{does}
form the participle \Tur{iken,} which has a suffixed form \Tur{-(y)ken}
and may follow a verb-base:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Gel\md ir\md ken, bana oyun\md cak tren ge\md tir\md ir
  mi\md sin?}\footnote{Said in a cartoon (in \emph{Penguen}) by a calf
  to his father, who is trying 
  to explain why he (the bull) is going with the butcher on a long trip from
  which he will never return.}\\  
\Eng{When you come, will you bring me a toy
  train?}
\end{example}
The stem \Tur{i-} forms the bases \Tur{i\md mi\c s, i\md di,} and
\Tur{i\md se,}
which can be suffixed as \Tur{-(y)m\#\c s, -(y)d\#,}
and \Tur{-(y)s@.}  Hence two \textbf{compound bases} in \Tur{i-} are formed:
\Tur{i\md mi\c s\md se} and \Tur{i\md di\md yse.}
Verbs in \Tur{i-} are negated with a preceding \Tur{de\u gil,} and
`interrogated' with a preceding \Tur{m\#;} the \Tur{de\u gil} precedes
the \Tur{m\#} 
if both are used.  Verbs in \Tur{i-} may be
attached to nouns; verbs in \Tur{i-} with simple (not compound) bases
may be attached to verb-bases not in
\Tur{i-.}  Missing forms in \Tur{i-} are supplied by \Tur{ol-}
\Eng{become.} 
\begin{example}
  \Tur{Ku\c s\md mu\c s} \Eng{It was apparently a bird.}\\
\Tur{Hay\i r, u\c cak\md t\i} \Eng{No, it was a plane.}\\
\Tur{U\c cak ise, ni\c cin u\c c\md mu\md yor?}  \Eng{If it is a plane, why
  is it not flying?}\\
\Tur{U\c c\md acak\md t\i} \Eng{It was going to fly.}\\
\Tur{U\c c\md ar\md sa, bin\md ecek mi\md siniz?}  \Eng{If it flies, will you
  board?}\\
\Tur{\c Cabuk ol!}  \Eng{Be quick!}\\
\Tur{Ol\md mak ve sahip ol\md mak} \Eng{To be and to be an owner} (the
Turkish title of the movie \emph{Etre et avoir}).
\end{example}

As noted, \Tur{-(y)ken} is used with a verb-base to subordinate the verb.
There are various endings used with verb-\emph{stems} that subordinate
the verb to another:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
\Tur{-(y)\#nc@} (denotes action just before that of the main verb);
\item
\Tur{-(y)\#nc@y@ kadar} \Eng{until ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-(y)@} (the ending used in \Tur{G\"ule g\"ule,} \S~\ref{sect:day});
\item
\Tur{-(y)@r@k} \Eng{by ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-m@d@n} \Eng{without ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-m@d@n \"once} \Eng{before ---ing;}
\item
\Tur{-d\#kt@n sonra} \Eng{after ---ing.}
\end{itemize}
Here are a couple of literary examples given in \cite{Atabay}:
\begin{example}
  \Tur{\c Ciftli\u ge do\u gru iste\md me\md yerek y\"ur\"ud\"u.}\\
\Eng{Sie walked towards the farm without wanting to.}

\Tur{\.Ilkyazlarla yeniden canlan\i\c s\i\ do\u gan\i n,
k\i\c s ba\c s\md la\md y\i nca s\"onmesi.}\\
\Eng{With spring comes nature's rebirth; with winter, its extinction.}
\end{example}

\section{Sayings}\label{sect:say}
\nocite{Ozdemir} \nocite{Turkhan}

The reader may wish to translate some of these (taken mostly from
\cite{Ozdemir,Turkhan}), or check the loose
translations offered in some cases.  (All needed root-words should be
in \S~\ref{sect:dict}.)

\begin{enumerate}
\item
\Tur{Bakmakla \"o\u grenilse, k\"opekler kasap olurdu.}\\
\Eng{If learning were done by watching, dogs would be butchers.}
\item
\Tur{Bal tutan parma\u g\i n\i\ yalar.}  \Eng{The worker takes a share
  of the goods.}
  \item
\Tur{Balc\i n\i n var bal tas\i; oduncunun var baltas\i.}\\ 
\Eng{A honey-seller has a honey-pot; a woodsman has an axe.} 
\item
\Tur{Bir deli kuyuya ta\c s atm\i\c s, k\i rk ak\i ll\i\ \c c\i
  karamam\i\c s.}
\item
\Tur{\c Cok ya\c sayan bilmez, \c cok gezen bilir.}
\item
\Tur{Ge\c c olsun da, g\"u\c c olmas\i n.}
\Eng{Let it be late; just don't let it be difficult.}
\item
\Tur{Gelen gideni arat\i r.} 
\Eng{What comes makes you look for what goes.}
\item
\Tur{G\"on\"ul ferman dinlemez.}
\item
\Tur{G\"or\"unen k\"oy k\i lavuz istemez.}\\
\Eng{You don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows.}
\item
\Tur{Her yi\u gidin bir yo\u gurt yeyi\c si vard\i r.}\\
\Eng{Everyone has hir own way of doing things.}
\item
\Tur{Hocanin dedi\u gini yap, yapt\i\u g\i n\i\ yapma.}
\item
\Tur{\.Isteyenin bir y\"uz\"u kara, vermeyenin iki y\"uz\"u.}
\Eng{The person who asks for something has a black face, but the
  person who doesn't give it has two.}
\item
\Tur{Kedi uzanamad\i\u g\i\ ci\u gere pis der.}
\item
\Tur{Meyvas\i\ olan a\u gac\i\ ta\c slarlar.}
\item
\Tur{Nasihat istersen, tembele i\c s buyur.}\\
\Eng{If you want to hear advice, ask a lazy person to work.}
\item
\Tur{Olmaz, olmaz deme, olmaz olmaz.}
\item
\Tur{\"Olenle \"ol\"unmez.}  \Eng{One doesn't die with the dead.}
\item
\Tur{S\"oz g\"um\"u\c sse, s\"uk\^ut alt\i nd\i r.}
\item
\Tur{\"Uz\"um\"u ye, ba\u g\i n\i\ sorma.}
\item
\Tur{Yuvarlanan ta\c s yosun tutmaz.}
\end{enumerate}

\section{Journalese}

Here are: a sentence taken almost at random from a newspaper; a
word-by-word translation; and an English translation:
\begin{quote}
  \Tur{1701 numaral\i\ kararda
bar\i\c s g\"uc\"un\"un
bu g\"orevi\\
yerine getirebilmesi
   i\c cin
  L\"ubnan ordusuna
  yard\i mc\i\\ 
olmas\i\ istenirken,
s\"oz konusu g\"orevinin\\
engellenmeye \c cal\i\c s\i lmas\i\ durumunda
g\"u\c c\\
kullanabilece\u gi belirtiliyor.}

\raggedright
  1701 numbered in-the-decision peace its-forces' this duty
  [\emph{d.o.}] to-its\-{}-place to-be-able-to-bring for Lebanon
  to-its-army assistant
  its-being
  while-being-desired, word its-subject duty's to-be-impeded
  [\emph{i.o.}] its-being-worked in-its-state force
  that-it-will-be-able-to-be-used it-is-made-clear.

  \Eng{In the decision numbered 1701, as it is desired that the peace
  forces will help the Lebanese army so that it can fulfill this
  duty, it is made clear that, in case the duty under discussion 
  is being hindered, force can be used.}
\end{quote}
I diagram the Turkish sentence in Figure~\ref{fig:ordu} by the
following principles: 
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
No two verbs (or forms of verbs) are on the same line.
\item
The complements of a verb are on the same line with the verb, or---if
they involve verbs themselves---are attached to that line from above.
\item
Modifiers of nouns are raised above the nouns.
\item
The diagram retains the original word-order.
\end{enumerate}

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\begin{pspicture}(0,0)(10,4.8)
\psset{yunit=.8cm}
%\psgrid
\psline(0,1.2)(0,0)
\psdots(0,1.2)(0,0.6)(0,0)
\uput[ur](0,1.2){1701}
\uput[ur](0,0.6){numara\md l\i}
\uput[ur](0,0){karar\md da}
\psdots(1.8,0)(1.8,3.0)(1.8,3.6)(1.8,4.2)
\psline(1.8,0)(1.8,4.2)
\uput[ur](1.8,4.2){bar\i\c s}
\uput[ur](1.8,3.6){g\"uc\md\"u\md n\"un}
\psdots(3.6,3.6)(3.6,4.2)
\psline(3.6,3.6)(3.6,4.8)
\uput[ur](3.6,4.2){i\c cin}
\psdots(4.2,4.8)(4.2,5.4)
\psline(4.2,4.8)(4.2,5.4)
\uput[ur](4.2,5.4){bu}
\uput[ur](4.2,4.8){g\"orev\md i}
\psdots(5.6,4.8)
\uput[ur](5.6,4.8){yer\md i\md ne}
\psdots(7.1,4.8)
\psline(3.6,4.8)(7.1,4.8)
\uput[ur](7.1,4.8){ge\md tir\md ebil\md me\md si}
\psdots(4.5,4.2)(4.5,3.6)
\psline(4.5,4.2)(4.5,3.6)
\uput[ur](4.5,4.2){L\"ubnan}
\uput[ur](4.5,3.6){ordu\md su\md na}
\psdots(6.5,3.6)
\uput[ur](6.5,3.6){yard\i m\md c\i}
\psdots(8.3,3.6)
\uput[ur](8.3,3.6){ol\md ma\md s\i}
\psline(1.8,3.6)(8.3,3.6)
\psdots(2.4,3.0)
\psline(1.8,3.0)(2.4,3.0)
\uput[ur](2.4,3.0){iste\md n\md ir\md ken}
\psdots(2.4,2.4)(2.4,1.8)(2.4,1.2)(2.4,0.0)
\psline(2.4,2.4)(2.4,0.0)
\uput[ur](2.4,2.4){s\"oz}
\uput[ur](2.4,1.8){konu\md su}
\uput[ur](2.4,1.2){g\"orev\md i\md nin}
\psdots(5.0,1.8)(5.0,1.2)
\psline(2.4,1.2)(5.0,1.2)
\psline(4.4,1.2)(4.4,1.8)(5.0,1.8)
\uput[ur](5.0,1.8){engel\md le\md n\md me\md ye}
\uput[ur](5.0,1.2){\c cal\i\c s\md \i l\md ma\md s\i}
\uput[ur](2.4,0.0){dur\md um\md u\md nda}
\psdots(5.4,0.0)(5.4,0.6)
\psline(4.8,0.0)(4.8,0.6)
\uput[ur](5.4,0.6){g\"u\c c}
\psdots(6.3,0.6)
\psline(4.8,0.6)(6.3,0.6)
\psline(0,0)(5.4,0)
\uput[ur](6.3,0.6){kul\md lan\md abil\md ece\u g\md i}
\uput[ur](5.4,0.0){belirti\md li\md yor}
\psdots[dotstyle=o]
(3.6,4.8)(1.8,3.0)(1.8,0.0)(4.4,1.8)(4.4,1.2)(4.8,0)(4.8,0.6) 
\end{pspicture}
\caption{A newspaper sentence, diagrammed}\label{fig:ordu}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

Another example: here I merely embolden all words that are verbs or
  are derived from 
  verbs:\footnote{The 
  sentence is from \emph{Birg\"un,} November 7, 2006; I didn't record
  the source of the earlier sentence.}

\begin{quote}
  \Tur{\"Ozellikle i\c sten eve \textbf{geli\c s} saatlerinde\\
\textbf{kar\c s\i la\c st\i klar\i\
kesintilerin ``b\i kt\i rd\i\u g\i
n\i'' s\"oyleyen}
  Ankaral\i lar, aile\\
 bireylerinin evde
 \textbf{oldu\u gu,} bir arada
  \textbf{yemek 
  yedi\u gi} saatlerin\\
 elektrik \textbf{kesintileri} y\"uz\"unden karanl\i kta
  \textbf{ge\c cirilmesinin} modern\\
 \c sehirlerde e\c sine az \textbf{rastlan\i l\i r}
  bir \textbf{durum oldu\u gunu} ifade\\
 \textbf{etti.}}

\raggedright
Especially from-work homewards coming at-these-hours encountered
by-the-cuts ``fed-up-with'' saying Ankarans, family members' at-home
being, one in-an-interval meal eating its-hours' electric cuts
from-their-face in-the-dark being-passed's modern in-cities
to-its-equal little encountered a state being expression made. 

\Eng{Saying they are fed up with cuts, experienced especially at the
  hours of coming home from work, Ankarans indicated that the passing
  of hours when family members are at home eating a meal together, in
  the dark because of electricity cuts, was a situation rarely meeting
  an equal in modern cities.}
\end{quote}

\section{Dictionary}\label{sect:dict}

Nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs used elsewhere in these notes
(except perhaps \S~\ref{sect:day})
are listed here.  For postpositions, see \S~\ref{sect:parts}.
Verbs are given as stems, with a hyphen.  Forms with constructive
suffixes are generally not given, unless they are anomalous.

\begin{multicols}{3}
\Tur{a\u ga} \Eng{lord}\\
\Tur{a\u ga\c c} \Eng{tree}\\
\Tur{ak\i l} \Eng{wisdom}\\
\Tur{aile} \Eng{family}\\
\Tur{al-} \Eng{take, buy}\\
\Tur{alt\i n} \Eng{gold}\\
\Tur{ana, anne} \Eng{mother}\\
\Tur{ara} \Eng{interval}\\
\Tur{ara-} \Eng{look for, call}\\
\Tur{arka} \Eng{back}\\
\Tur{at} \Eng{horse}\\
\Tur{ba\u g} \Eng{vineyard}\\
\Tur{bak-} \Eng{look}\\
\Tur{bal} \Eng{honey}\\
\Tur{bal\i k} \Eng{fish}\\
\Tur{balta} \Eng{axe}\\
\Tur{banka} \Eng{bank}\\
\Tur{bar\i\c s} \Eng{peace}\\
\Tur{ba\c s} \Eng{head}\\
\Tur{belir-} \Eng{become visible}\\
\Tur{b\i\c cak} \Eng{knife}\\
\Tur{b\i k-} \Eng{get bored}\\
\Tur{bil-} \Eng{know}\\
\Tur{bin-} \Eng{go up or on}\\
\Tur{birey} \Eng{individual}\\
\Tur{b\"ol-} \Eng{divide}\\
\Tur{bul-} \Eng{find}\\
\Tur{buyur-} \Eng{command}\\ 
\Tur{can} \Eng{soul, life}\\
\Tur{ci\u ger} \Eng{liver}\\
\Tur{\c cabuk} \Eng{quick, fast}\\
\Tur{\c ca\u g} \Eng{era}\\
\Tur{\c cal\i\c s-} \Eng{work}\\
\Tur{\c ciftlik} \Eng{farm}\\
\Tur{\c cocuk} \Eng{child}\\
\Tur{de-} \Eng{say}\\
\Tur{dedikodu} \Eng{gossip}\\
\Tur{deli} \Eng{mad}\\
\Tur{deniz} \Eng{sea}\\
\Tur{diken} \Eng{thorn}\\
\Tur{dinle-} \Eng{listen to}\\
\Tur{do\u ga} \Eng{nature}\\
\Tur{dur-} \Eng{stop}\\
\Tur{engel} \Eng{obstacle}\\
\Tur{e\c s} \Eng{match, equal}\\
\Tur{et} \Eng{meat}\\
\Tur{et-} \Eng{make, do}\\
\Tur{ev} \Eng{house, home}\\
\Tur{ferman} \Eng{imperial edict}\\
\Tur{gazete} \Eng{newspaper}\\
\Tur{gece} \Eng{night}\\
\Tur{ge\c c} \Eng{late}\\
\Tur{gel-} \Eng{come}\\
\Tur{getir-} \Eng{bring}\\
\Tur{git-} \Eng{go}\\
\Tur{g\"on\"ul} \Eng{heart}\\
\Tur{g\"or-} \Eng{see}\\
\Tur{g\"orev} \Eng{duty}\\
\Tur{g\"u\c c} \Eng{power}\\
\Tur{g\"ul} \Eng{rose}\\
\Tur{g\"ul-} \Eng{smile, laugh}\\
\Tur{g\"um\"u\c s} \Eng{silver}\\
\Tur{g\"un} \Eng{day}\\
\Tur{hoca} \Eng{(religious) teacher}\\
\Tur{i\c c-} \Eng{drink, smoke}\\
\Tur{ifade} \Eng{expression}\\
\Tur{ilkyaz} \Eng{spring}\\
\Tur{iste-} \Eng{desire, ask for}\\
\Tur{i\c s} \Eng{work, business}\\
\Tur{kar} \Eng{snow}\\
\Tur{k\^ar} \Eng{profit}\\
\Tur{karanl\i k} \Eng{dark}\\
\Tur{karar} \Eng{decision}\\
\Tur{kar\i n} \Eng{belly}\\
\Tur{kar\c s\i la-} \Eng{go to meet}\\
\Tur{kasap} \Eng{butcher}\\
\Tur{kazara} \Eng{by chance}\\
\Tur{kebap} \Eng{kebab}\\
\Tur{kedi} \Eng{cat}\\
\Tur{kes-} \Eng{cut}\\
\Tur{k\i lavuz} \Eng{guide}\\
\Tur{k\i\c s} \Eng{winter}\\
\Tur{kilit} \Eng{lock}\\
\Tur{kim} \Eng{who?}\\
\Tur{ki\c si} \Eng{person}\\
\Tur{kitap} \Eng{book}\\
\Tur{konu} \Eng{topic}\\
\Tur{konu\c s-} \Eng{speak}\\
\Tur{kop-} \Eng{break off}\\
\Tur{koru-} \Eng{protect}\\
\Tur{k\"opek} \Eng{dog}\\
\Tur{k\"oy} \Eng{village}\\
\Tur{kul} \Eng{slave}\\
\Tur{kullan-} \Eng{use}\\
\Tur{ku\c s} \Eng{bird}\\
\Tur{kuyu} \Eng{well}\\
\Tur{memleket} \Eng{native land}\\
\Tur{meslek} \Eng{profession}\\
\Tur{meyva} \Eng{fruit}\\
\Tur{nasihat} \Eng{advice}\\
\Tur{numara} \Eng{number}\\
\Tur{odun} \Eng{firewood}\\
\Tur{oku-} \Eng{read}\\
\Tur{ol-} \Eng{become, be}\\
\Tur{ordu} \Eng{army}\\
\Tur{oyun} \Eng{game, play}\\
\Tur{\"o\u gren-} \Eng{learn}\\
\Tur{\"o\u gret-} \Eng{teach}\\
\Tur{\"ol-} \Eng{die}\\
\Tur{\"ozel} \Eng{special, private}\\
\Tur{parmak} \Eng{finger}\\
\Tur{pis} \Eng{dirty}\\
\Tur{rak\i} \Eng{arak}\\
\Tur{rastla-} \Eng{meet by chance}\\
\Tur{sahip} \Eng{owner}\\
\Tur{sar\i} \Eng{yellow}\\
\Tur{sat-} \Eng{sell}\\
\Tur{sev-} \Eng{love}\\
\Tur{son} \Eng{end}\\
\Tur{sor-} \Eng{ask (about)}\\
\Tur{s\"on-} \Eng{die down, go out}\\
\Tur{s\"oz} \Eng{expression, word}\\
\Tur{s\"oyle-} \Eng{say}\\
\Tur{s\"uk\^ut} \Eng{silence}\\
\Tur{s\"ut} \Eng{milk}\\
\Tur{\c sehir} \Eng{city}\\
\Tur{\c seker} \Eng{sugar}\\
\Tur{tas} \Eng{pot}\\
\Tur{ta\c s} \Eng{stone}\\
\Tur{tembel} \Eng{lazy}\\
\Tur{temiz} \Eng{clean}\\
\Tur{tren} \Eng{train}\\
\Tur{tut-} \Eng{hold}\\
\Tur{tuz} \Eng{salt}\\
\Tur{u\c c-} \Eng{fly}\\
\Tur{uza-} \Eng{get longer}\\
\Tur{\"uz\"um} \Eng{grape}\\
\Tur{ver-} \Eng{give}\\
\Tur{yala-} \Eng{lick}\\
\Tur{yap-} \Eng{make, do}\\
\Tur{yard\i m} \Eng{aid}\\
\Tur{ya\c sa-} \Eng{live}\\
\Tur{yaz} \Eng{summer}\\
\Tur{yaz-} \Eng{write}\\
\Tur{ye-} \Eng{eat}\\
\Tur{yemek} \Eng{food}\\
\Tur{yeni} \Eng{new}\\
\Tur{yer} \Eng{ground, place}\\
\Tur{yi\u git} \Eng{(brave) young man}\\
\Tur{yo\u gurt} \Eng{yogurt}\\
\Tur{yol} \Eng{road}\\
\Tur{yosun} \Eng{moss, seaweed}\\
\Tur{yumu\c sa-} \Eng{become soft}\\
\Tur{yuvarla-} \Eng{roll}\\
\Tur{y\"ur\"u-} \Eng{walk}\\
\Tur{y\"uz} \Eng{100}\\
\phantom{\Tur{y\"uz}} \Eng{face}
\end{multicols}


\nocite{Puskulluoglu}

%\bibliographystyle{plain}
%\bibliography{../../../../TeX/references}

\def\cprime{$'$}
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\end{thebibliography}


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