% 2004.1.28: the work here is continued in the file <grammar.tex>
\documentclass[a4paper,12pt]{article}
\usepackage{amsthm}

\newcommand{\datenow}{2004.1.26}

\title{Turkish finite verbs}
\author{David Pierce}
\date{\datenow}

\newcommand{\Tur}[1]{\texttt{#1}} % for words in Turkish
\newcommand{\Eng}[1]{\textsl{#1}} %for words in English
\newcommand{\tech}[1]{\textbf{#1}} % for technical terms
\newcommand{\letter}[1]{\textsf{#1}}  %for letters as such
%\newcommand{\aelig}{\ae}
\newcommand{\aesymb}{@}

\theoremstyle{definition}
\newtheorem*{example}{Example}
\pagestyle{myheadings}
 \markboth{Turkish finite verbs, \datenow}{\datenow, David Pierce}

\begin{document}
 \maketitle\thispagestyle{empty}
 \tableofcontents

%\newpage
%\setcounter{page}{1}
\setcounter{section}{-1}
\section{Introduction}

As a student of Turkish, I make these notes in an effort to understand
the logic of Turkish \tech{verbs}.  This is not the account of an
expert.  I gathered the information here
mainly from the two books \cite{Lewis} and \cite{Hengirmen}.

My account of the verbs will involve some reference to the other
\tech{parts of speech}.  Being \emph{written,} my account will use
the Turkish \tech{alphabet} and will therefore illustrate features
like \tech{vowel-harmony} that are reflected in spelling.

\section{Alphabet}

Like English, modern Turkish (since 1928) uses an alphabet derived from
the 23-letter Latin alphabet 
\begin{center}
  \letter{A}, \letter{B}, \letter{C}, \letter{D}, \letter{E}, \letter{F},
\letter{G}, \letter{H}, \letter{I}, \letter{K}, \letter{L}, \letter{M},
\letter{N}, \letter{O}, \letter{P}, \letter{Q}, \letter{R}, \letter{S},
\letter{T}, \letter{V}, \letter{X}, \letter{Y}, \letter{Z}.
\end{center}
 English gets 3
more letters by introducing: 
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  the variant \letter{J} of \letter{I}, and
  \item
  the variants \letter{U} and \letter{W} (double-\letter{U}) of \letter{V}.
\end{itemize}
The letter-forms
given above are called \tech{upper case}, to
distinguish them from the \tech{lower case} (\letter{a}, \letter{b},
\letter{c} and so on).

The 29-letter Turkish alphabet can be derived from the English one by:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  eliminating \letter{Q}, \letter{X} and \letter{W};
  \item
  deriving from \letter{C}, \letter{G}, \letter{O}, \letter{S} and \letter{U}
  the letters \letter{\c C}, \letter{\u G}, \letter{\"O}, \letter{\c S} and
  \letter{\"U} respectively, by adjoining cedilla, breve or umlaut;
  \item
  replacing \letter{I} with two letters, \letter{I} and \letter{\.I}
  (distinguished in both upper and lower case by whether a dot is present:
  the lower-case forms are therefore \letter{\i} and \letter{i}
  respectively).
\end{itemize}
The letter \letter{\u G} is called \Tur{yumu\c{s}ak ge} (\Eng{soft}
\letter{G}), and it never begins a word.  The new letters (new to
English-writers, that is)
can be understood as derived from the old by diacritical marks, but these
marks become integral parts of the new letters.  It is not the
\emph{shape} of the mark, but its \emph{presence} at the top or bottom of
the letter that is used to distinguish the letter from its `twin'.  For
example, one Turkish dairy styles itself \Tur{S\"uta\d s} (they use a dot
instead of a cedilla under the \letter{s}), and there is a bus company
called \Tur{Uluda\`g} (taking their name from the mountain at Bursa, the
first capital of the Ottoman Empire; they use a grave accent rather than
a breve over the \letter{g}).

In the alphabetical order, \letter{I} precedes \letter{\.I}, and the
other new letters follow their `twins'.

Because of the distinction between the letters \letter{\i} and
\letter{i} in Turkish, neither of these should be joined in a
\tech{ligature} to a preceding \letter{f}.  In English, the other word
for a movie is printed
\Eng{film} rather than \Eng{f{}ilm}, but in Turkish, the word is
printed as \Tur{film}, with four distinct letters.  (Also, for
example, \Tur{fil}
means \Eng{elephant} or \Eng{chess-bishop}, while \Tur{f\i nd\i k} means
\Eng{hazelnut}.)

In Turkey, on a license-plate, I have seen a presumably-capital
\letter{J} written with a dot.  But \letter{j} is rare in Turkish anyway, being
 used only in foreign words.

\section{Sounds}

The name of a \tech{vowel} is itself, and the name of a \tech{consonant}
(besides
\letter{\u G}) is itself plus \letter{e}.

The number of vowels is eight, that is, $2^3$, since each vowel is
determined by the quality it possesses from each of three pairs:
\Eng{thick/thin, flat/round and narrow/wide}.  These are literal
translations of the usual Turkish terms (\Tur{kal\i n/ince,
d\"uz/yuvarlak, dar/geni\c s}), but commonly in English the terms are:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{back/front},
  \item
  \tech{unround/round},
  \item
  \tech{close/open}.
\end{itemize}
The vowels can then be tabulated:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{c|c|c|c|c|}
  % after \\ : \hline or \cline{col1-col2} \cline{col3-col4} ...
   \multicolumn{1}{c}{} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{open} &
   \multicolumn{2}{c}{close}  \\
   \cline{2-5}
   { }& back & front & back & front \\ \hline
   unround  & \letter a & \letter e & \letter{\i} & \letter i \\ \hline
   round    & \letter o & \letter{\"o} & \letter u & \letter{\"u} \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

The sound of \Tur{a} can be spelled in English by \Eng{uh}; close the
mouth more to get \Tur{\i}.  The \Tur{\"o} and \Tur{\"u} are as in
German; their sounds are found in French as well.

Further distinctions are possible, mainly because Turkish retains
borrowings from Arabic and Persian.  A difference from the norm might be
shown by a circumflex: so \Tur{kar} means \Eng{snow}, but \Tur{k\^ar},
sounding something like \emph{kyahr}, means \Eng{profit}.

The other 21 letters are consonants.  Besides the `semi-vowel'
\letter{y}, the consonants might be tabulated:

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|} \hline
  % after \\ : \hline or \cline{col1-col2} \cline{col3-col4} ...
  \letter b/\letter p & \letter v/\letter f      &
                                           & \letter m & \\ \hline
  \letter d/\letter t & \letter j/\letter {\c s} &
                   \letter c/\letter{\c c} & \letter n & \letter l\\
                      & \letter z/\letter s      &
                                           &           &          \\ \hline
  \letter g/\letter k & \letter{\u g}/\letter h  &
                                           &           & \letter r\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
The rows here are intended to correspond to position of the lips and the
tip of the tongue; the columns, to the flow of breath used to pronounce
the consonant.  (This particular table is my own invention though, and is
not the result of careful phonological study.)  The members of the pairs
$*/*$ are \tech{voiced} and \tech{unvoiced} respectively, or \Eng{soft}
and \Eng{strong} in Turkish (\Tur{yumu\c sak} and \Tur{sert}). The main
effect of
\letter{\u g} is to lengthen the preceding vowel.  (So it functions
like \Eng{gh} in English in changing \Eng{fit} into \Eng{fight}.)  The
letter \letter{j}
is pronounced as in French.  The sound of \letter{c} is spelled in
English by \letter{j} or \Eng{dge}; the sounds of \letter{\c c} and
\letter{\c s}, by \Eng{ch} and \Eng{sh}.

\section{Writing}

As in English, written Turkish is divided into \tech{sentences}, and
these into \tech{words}.  Some words are \tech{enclitic}, being
unaccented, but causing the previous syllable to be accented.  (Syllabic
accents are not very strong in Turkish though.)  The vowel in an enclitic
may also change according to the preceding vowel. This same vowel harmony
is shown by many \tech{suffixes}.

I shall indicate the variability of vowels with the following symbols:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \letter{\aesymb} for an open unround vowel (\letter{a} or \letter{e});
  \item
  \letter{\#} for a close vowel (\letter{\i}, \letter{i}, \letter{u} or \letter{\"u}).
\end{itemize}
I have not seen such symbols used elsewhere in this way.  (Perhaps using
\letter{\ae} instead of \letter{\aesymb} would be more logical, but its
appearance seems more confusing.)  Each symbol resolves to a vowel
agreeing as far as possible with the preceding vowel. In particular,
after
\letter{\aesymb}, the only possibilities for
\letter{\#} are \letter{\i} and \letter{i}.

The variability in consonants will not be indicated.  However, when it
begins a suffix appended to a word ending in an unvoiced (that is,
strong) consonant, the letter \letter{d} is unvoiced (`strengthened') to
\letter{t}. Also, terminal
\letter{k} changes to \letter{\u g} when a suffix beginning with a vowel
is added. (These changes affect the suffix \Tur{-d\#r} and the
termination \Tur{-k} mentioned below.  Other such changes can occur.)

\begin{example}
The question \Tur{Avrupa + l\# + l\aesymb\c s + d\#r + \aesymb m\aesymb\
+ d\#k + l\aesymb r + \#m\#z + d\aesymb n m\# + s\#n\#z?} resolves to
\Tur{Avrupal\i la\c st\i ramad\i klar\i m\i z\-dan m\i s\i n\i z?}
meaning \Eng{Are you one of those whom we could not Europeanize?}.
\end{example}

The symbol \letter{\#} may resolve to zero (nothing) when it begins a
suffix placed after a vowel; alternatively, a consonant may be
interposed, \letter{n}, \letter{s} or \letter{y}, depending on the
situation.  Sometimes the \letter{y} narrows the preceding \letter{@} to
\letter{\#}.

\section{Words}

Not every word appears in a dictionary, even if the word is well-formed;
the word may be \tech{inflected} (or otherwise derived) from a
dictionary-word according to standard rules.  Otherwise, we might say
that the \emph{same} word may be used in many forms, only one or a few of
which appear in the dictionary.  For example, in English, we can say that
\Eng{man} and \Eng{men} are two words, or else that they are two forms of
the same word. Inflected forms are few in English; in Turkish they are
many.

Turkish words fall into some of the same classes (parts of speech) as
English words: \tech{noun}, \tech{pronoun}, \tech{adjective}, \tech{verb}
and \tech{verbal noun}, and \tech{adjective}.  Instead of prepositions,
but fulfilling some of the same functions, Turkish has
\tech{postpositions}.

\begin{example}
The postposition \Tur{gibi} corresponds to the preposition \Eng{like}.
With the noun \Tur{buz} \Eng{ice} is formed the phrase \Tur{buz gibi}
\Eng{like ice}, that is, \Eng{ice cold} (a slogan on signs in Turkey
advertising a certain American soft drink marketed all over the world).
\end{example}

 This reversal of order in passing from the one language to the other
occurs in other ways.  A Turkish word (as in the earlier example) may
have parts which, in English, would appear as separate words in the
opposite order. As in English though, adjectives generally precede the
nouns they modify.

\section{Verbs: Stems}

The dictionary-form of a verb is usually the \tech{infinitive}, analyzed
as
\begin{center}
\tech{stem} + \Tur{m\aesymb k};
\end{center}
otherwise, the stem itself is the dictionary head-word.

All verbs are \tech{regular}, except the \tech{defective} verb with stem
\Tur{i-} corresponding to the English \Eng{be} when used as a
\tech{copula} (as in `Socrates is a man').  The verb is defective
because it does not have as many inflexions as a regular verb; it
\emph{can't} have as many inflexions, because all of its inflexions
are \emph{used} in inflexions of regular verbs.  Where there is no inflexion
of \Tur{i-}, but the corresponding \emph{meaning} is needed, then the
stem \Tur{ol-} supplies the inflexion.  Otherwise, \Tur{olmak} is a
regular verb meaning \Eng{to become}.  (An exception will be noted
later; it is connected to the absence in Turkish of a verb
meaning \Eng{have}.)

Every regular stem can stand by itself as a \tech{second-person singular
imperative} verb.

\begin{example}
The infinitives \Tur{gelmek} \Eng{to come} and \Tur{\c c\i kmak} \Eng{to
come out} or \Eng{up} reveal the stems \Tur{gel-} and \Tur{\c c\i k-},
hence the commands \Tur{Gel!} \Eng{Come!} and \Tur{\c C\i k!} \Eng{Come
out!}  The command \Eng{Be quick!} is given by \Tur{\c Cabuk ol!}.
\end{example}

The stem of a regular verb can be understood as a \tech{simple} stem
together with one or more (or no) \tech{extensions}.  A simple verb-stem
might be a verbal \tech{root}, or it might be a noun or adjective with a
verbal suffix, often \Tur{-l\aesymb}.

\begin{example}
In addition to those in the preceding example, some verbal roots include
\Tur{uyu-} \Eng{sleep} and \Tur{kalk-} \Eng{get up}.  Also:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  from \Tur{ba\c s} \Eng{head} comes the stem \Tur{ba\c sla-}
  \Eng{begin} (make a head); 
  \item
  from \Tur{temiz} \Eng{clean} comes \Tur{temizle-} \Eng{clean} (make
  clean);
  \item
  from \Tur{k\"opek} \Eng{dog} comes \Tur{k\"opekle-} \Eng{cringe} (make
  like a dog).
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

Extensions in a verb-stem can be seen to indicate distinctions of
\tech{voice} (though this means that Turkish has more voices than the
\tech{active} and \tech{passive} of English; English does have other ways
of conveying the additional distinctions of voice in Turkish).

When extensions are present, they appear in the following order:
\begin{enumerate}
  \item
  \tech{reflexive}: \Tur{-\#n};
  \item
  \tech{reciprocal}: \Tur{-\#\c s};
  \item
  \tech{causative}:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \Tur{-t} after polysyllabic stems in \Tur{-l}, \Tur{-r} or a vowel, and
  \item
  \Tur{-d\#r} in other cases, except:
  \item
  \Tur{-\#r}, \Tur{-\aesymb r} or \Tur{-\#t} occur after some monosyllabic
  stems, and
  \item
  some exceptional forms occur as well;
\end{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{passive}: \Tur{-\#l}, after stems ending in a consonant other
  than \Tur{-l} (otherwise it has the same form as the reflexive).
\end{enumerate}

The significance of an extension is not always obvious from its name.

Like the ancient-Greek \tech{middle} voice, the reflexive extension may
suggest a doing \emph{for} and not just \emph{to} oneself, and it may
have the same effect (and even the same form) as a passive extension
(although these two kinds of extensions can be used together as well).

Used together, the reciprocal and causative extensions make the
\tech{repetitive} extension \Tur{-\#\c st\#r} (other suffixes are used to
the same effect in a few cases).

Sometimes the same verbal root can be used \tech{transitively} or
\tech{intransitively}: \Tur{gez-} can mean either \Eng{tour} and
\Eng{inspect}, or
\Eng{walk}.  Also, the causative extension can make an intransitive stem
transitive: \Tur{\"ol-} means \Eng{die}, while \Tur{\"old\"ur-} means
\Eng{kill}, and \Tur{kayna-} and \Tur{kaynat-} mean \Eng{boil}:
respectively, what water does in a pot on the stove, and what I do when I
put the pot there.

Used with a transitive stem, the causative extension could be called
\tech{factitive}: \Tur{\"old\"urt-} means \Eng{have [somebody] killed}.
As here, more than one causative extension can be used.

Here are some more examples of distinctions of voice:

\begin{example}
We have \Tur{bula\c s\i k y\i ka-} \Eng{wash dishes}, but \Tur{y\i
  kan-} \Eng{wash oneself} or \Eng{be washed}; the latter meaning is also
  expressed by \Tur{y\i kan\i l-}.  Also:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  from \Tur{bul-} \Eng{find} come \Tur{bulu\c s-} \Eng{meet} and
  \Tur{bulun-} \Eng{be present};
  \item
  from \Tur{ara-} \Eng{seek} comes \Tur{ara\c st\i r-} \Eng{investigate};
  \item
  \Tur{uyan-} \Eng{awake}, \Tur{uyand\i r-} \Eng{awaken},
  \Tur{uyand\i r\i l-} \Eng{be awakened}.
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The two-fold distinction in English between affirmation and denial
(between \Eng{I did it} and \Eng{I didn't do it}) can in Turkish be seen
as three-fold. Depending on the presence of the indicated suffixes, a
stem can be:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{positive}: ---;
  \item
  \tech{negative}: \Tur{-m\aesymb};
  \item
  \tech{impotential}: \Tur{-\aesymb m\aesymb}.
\end{itemize}
In any of these cases, the stem can be further rendered \tech{potential}
with \Tur{-\aesymb bil}.  These suffixes all come \emph{after} any
extensions. 

\begin{example}
The defectiveness (in particular, the lack of infinitives) of the English
modal auxiliaries gives various possibilities for translation.  The
second column below gives English infinitives without \Eng{to} (as might
follow the words \Eng{I shall}); the third column gives a finite form (as
might follow \Eng{I}).
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r r|} \hline
 \Tur{gel-}        &\Eng{come}                    &\\ \hline
 \Tur{gelme-}      &\Eng{not come}                &\Eng{do not come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{geleme-}     &\Eng{not be able to come}     &\Eng{cannot come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{gelebil-}    &\Eng{be able to come}         &\Eng{can come}\\ \hline
 \Tur{gelmiyebil-} &\Eng{be able not to come}     &\Eng{may not come}\\ \hline 
 \Tur{gelemiyebil-}&\Eng{possibly be unable to come}&\Eng{may be
 unable to come}\\ \hline 
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}

The potential form can be considered as a compound with the verb
\Tur{bil-}, meaning \Eng{know}.  Other compounds, less common, are
possible; for example, compounds with \Tur{dur-} \Eng{stop} or \Tur{gel-}
indicate continuous action.  Such compounding might be said to indicate
distinctions of \tech{aspect}.

Moreover, simple negation is achieved, as noted, with \Tur{-m\aesymb}.
The impotential suffix is the negation of the obsolete verb \Tur{u-}
\Eng{be powerful} or \Eng{able}.

The Turkish verb does not make the distinction between permission and
ability that English can make with \Eng{may} and \Eng{can}.

\section{Verbs: bases}

To a stem is added one (or sometimes more) of several
\tech{characteristics} (including the `empty' characteristic, used, as
noted, to form imperatives).  The result is a \tech{base}.  To a base can
be added \tech{personal} verb-endings, or more complicated forms.

The characteristics can be classified according to:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
which of the four series of personal endings they can take, and
\item
whether they can be attached to the stem \Tur{i-}.  
\end{itemize}
Their names will suggest their use
in indicating distinctions of \tech{tense}, \tech{aspect} and
\tech{mood}.

Like English, Turkish has three \tech{persons} and two \tech{numbers}. In
Turkish, these features are displayed by pronouns and verbs---also by
nouns, in the sense that nouns can be given \tech{possessive suffixes}
that display these features.

Listed in the order \emph{1st, 2d, 3d person singular; 1st, 2d, 3d person
plural}, the personal pronouns, possessive suffixes, and verb-endings of
the four types are as follows.

\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{l|r|r|r|r|r|r|} \hline
  pronoun & \Tur{ben} & \Tur{sen} & \Tur{o} & \Tur{biz} & \Tur{siz} &
  \Tur{onlar} \\ \hline
  suffix  & \Tur{-\#m} & \Tur{-\#n} & \Tur{-(s)i} & \Tur{-\#m\#z} &
  \Tur{-\#n\#z} & \Tur{-l@r\#} \\ \hline 
  \tech{type I} & \Tur{-\#m} & \Tur{-s\#n} & (\Tur{-d\#r}) & \Tur{-\#z} &
  \Tur{-s\#n\#z} & \Tur{-}(\Tur{d\#r})\Tur{l\aesymb r} \\ \hline 
  \tech{type II}& \Tur{-m} & \Tur{-n} & --- & \Tur{-k} & \Tur{-n\#z} &
  \Tur{-l\aesymb r} \\ \hline 
  \tech{type III}& \Tur{-\aesymb y\#m} & \Tur{-\aesymb s\#n} &
  \Tur{-\aesymb} & \Tur{-\aesymb l\#m} & \Tur{-\aesymb s\#n\#z}
  & \Tur{-\aesymb l\aesymb r} \\ \hline
  \tech{type IV} & & --- & \Tur{-s\#n} &  & \Tur{-\#n}, \Tur{-\#n\#z} &
  \Tur{-s\#nl\aesymb r} \\ 
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}

The type-I suffixes are said to come from the possessive suffixes
(except for the parenthetical \Tur{d\#r}, discussed below). The
possessive suffixes drop the initial vowel after a vowel, and in the
third-person singular, the \letter s is dropped after a consonant.

After the possessive suffix if it is present, a noun takes a
\tech{case}-ending, namely one of the following:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{absolute}: ---,
  \item
  \tech{definite-accusative}: \Tur{-(y)\#};
  \item
  \tech{genitive}: \Tur{-(n)\#n};
  \item
  \tech{dative}: \Tur{-(y)\aesymb};
  \item
  \tech{locative}: \Tur{-d\aesymb};
  \item
  \tech{ablative}: \Tur{-d\aesymb n}.
\end{itemize}
The parenthetical consonants are used after vowels.  The absolute case is
used for \tech{subjects} and \tech{indefinite direct objects}.

\begin{example}
From the (originally Arabic) \Tur{kitap} \Eng{book}, and from \Tur{oku-}
\Eng{read}, we can form \Tur{Kitap oku} \Eng{Read a book,} but
\Tur{Kitab\i\ oku} \Eng{Read the book.}
\end{example}

Any noun indicating something that is possessed needs a possessive
suffix, even if the possessor is also expressed by another noun.

\begin{example}
  Since \Eng{mother} is \Tur{anne} and \Eng{father} is \Tur{baba},
  \Eng{my mother's father} is \Tur{annemin babas\i}.
\end{example}

Since there is no Turkish verb for \Eng{have}, the fact of possession
is indicated by the (uninflected) word \Tur{var} \Eng{existent}, and
in some instances by \Tur{ol-}.

To a noun (or pronoun or adjective) with a case-ending, a type-I ending
can be added as a copula.

\begin{example}
The second-person plural here can be used (as in French) for a polite
singular:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|}\hline
 \Tur{ev} & \Eng{house}\\ \hline
 \Tur{eviniz} & \Eng{your house}\\ \hline
 \Tur{evinizde} & \Eng{at your house}\\ \hline
 \Tur{Evinizdeyim.} & \Eng{I am at your house.}\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}

As proper English despises a double negative, so Turkish (at least
sometimes) avoids a double plural. The ending \Tur{-l@r} is appended
(before a possessive suffix or case-ending) to nouns, to adjectives
acting as nouns, and to third-person verbs to indicate a plural; but if
plurality is indicated by a number, say, than the noun remains singular
in form; and a third-person verb with a plural subject might remain
singular, especially if the subject is inanimate.

\begin{example}
\Tur{ba\c slar} \Eng{heads}, \Tur{be\c s} \Eng{five}, so \Tur{be\c s ba\c
s} \Eng{five heads} (or \Eng{head}).
\end{example}

Parenthetical in the table of pronouns and endings, the suffix
\Tur{-d\#r}, unrelated to the causative extension, is said to come, as
early as the 11th century, from the aorist verb \Tur{turur} \Eng{stands}.
Its use is imprecisely summarized this way: in can be left out if
ambiguity will not result, and it can be used for emphasis (even in
persons besides the third).

\begin{example}
\Tur{T\"urkler} or \Tur{T\"urkt\"urler} \Eng{They are Turkish}, but
\Tur{T\"urklerdir} \Eng{They are the Turks}.
\end{example}

The characteristics are:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  (used with type-I endings)
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{present}: \Tur{-\#yor} (from the ancient aorist \Tur{yor\i r} \Eng{go} or
  \Eng{walk});
  \item
  \tech{future}: \Tur{-\aesymb c\aesymb k};
  \item
  \tech{aorist} (not used with negative stems):
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  positive: \Tur{-\aesymb r}, \Tur{-\#r} or \Tur{-r};
  \item
  negative: \Tur{-m\aesymb z};
\end{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{inferential past}: \Tur{-m\#\c s};
  \item
  \tech{necessitative}: \Tur{-m\aesymb l\#} (the verbal-noun suffix
  \Tur{-m\aesymb} with the adjectival ending \Tur{-l\#});
\end{itemize}
  \item
  (used with type-II endings)
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{simple past}: \Tur{-d\#};
  \item
  \tech{conditional}: \Tur{-s\aesymb};
\end{itemize}
  \item
  (used with type-III endings)
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{subjunctive}: \Tur{-\aesymb} (this is given as the characteristic so that
  the subjunctive base will be identical with the third-person singular
  verb; but this vowel is just the vowel that begins each of the type-III
  endings);
\end{itemize}
  \item
  (used with type-IV endings)
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \tech{imperative}: ---.
\end{itemize}
\end{itemize}

As noted, strictly the subjunctive has no characteristic.  Let us now be
strict.  Then the presence of a characteristic can be said to distinguish
the \tech{indicative} moods from the non-indicative.  (By this account
then, a conditional verb is indicative; this makes sense if, with the
symbolic-logicians, one takes \Eng{If $A$ then $B$} to mean just \Eng{$B$
or not-$A$.}  That the subjunctive and the imperative should be
considered as allied in Turkish is suggested also by the claim that the
first-plural subjunctive (type-III) ending is historically an imperative
ending.)

A \tech{regular} verb-base is a combination
\begin{center}
regular verb-stem + (characteristic).
\end{center}
A complete finite verb \emph{can} be obtained from such a base by
affixing an appropriate personal ending.  In particular, the indicative
bases can stand alone as third-singular verbs (as the non-indicative base
can stand alone as a second-singular imperative).

\begin{example}
On \Tur{oku-} \Eng{read} are formed the following indicative bases:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|r|}\hline
 \Tur{okuyor-} & \Eng{(is) reading}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okuyacak-} & \Eng{will read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okur-} & \Eng{read(s)}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumaz-} & \Eng{do(es) not read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumu\c s-} & \Eng{[they say that]\dots w(as) reading}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumal\i-} & \Eng{must read} \\ \hline
 \Tur{okudu-} & \Eng{[I saw that]\dots did read}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okusa-} & \Eng{if \dots\ read(s)}\\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{example}

In the absence of a verb, the type-I personal endings can, as noted, be
suffixed to nouns, pronouns, adjectives---also to the word \Tur{de\u
gil}, which \tech{negates} a sentence that lacks a regular verb.

\begin{example}
From \Tur{uzun} \Eng{long, tall} come \Tur{Uzunum} \Eng{I am tall} and
\Tur{Uzun de\u gilsin} \Eng{You are not tall.}
\end{example}

The bases formed on the stem \Tur{i-} are \tech{simple} or
\tech{compound}.  The simple bases result from suffixing a characteristic
\Tur{-m\#\c s}, \Tur{-d\#} or \Tur{-s\aesymb} only.  The non-conditional
simple bases can be rendered conditional by being compounded with that
simple base. Thus the bases in \Tur{i-} are five:
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|}\hline
 \Tur{imi\c s-} & \Tur{imi\c sse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{idi-} & \Tur{idiyse-}\\ \hline
 \Tur{ise-} & \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}


All verb-bases have now been described.  The bases formed on \Tur{i-}
must be completed with personal endings.  Personal endings \emph{may} be
attached to regular bases, as noted.  Alternatively, a complete verb
formed on a simple base in \Tur{i-} can follow or be suffixed to a
regular verb-base.

\begin{example}
By appending bases in \Tur{i-} to indicative stems in \Tur{oku-}, these
forms can be produced:

\noindent
\hspace{-.5em}\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|l|l|} \hline
 \Tur{okuyormu\c s} & \Tur{okuyordu} & \Tur{okuyorsa} & \Tur{okuyormu\c
 ssa} & \Tur{okuyorduysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okuyacakm\i\c s} &
 \Tur{okuyacakt\i} & \Tur{okuyacaksa} & \Tur{okuyacakm\i \c ssa} &
 \Tur{okuyacakt\i ysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okurmu\c s} & \Tur{okurdu} &
 \Tur{okursa} & \Tur{okurmu\c ssa} & \Tur{okurduysa}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumazm\i \c s} & \Tur{okumazd\i} & \Tur{okumazsa} & \Tur{okumazm\i\c
 ssa} & \Tur{okumazd\i ysa}\\ \hline 
 \Tur{okumu\c s imi\c s} &
 \Tur{okumu\c stu} & \Tur{okumu\c ssa} & \Tur{okumu\c s imi\c ssa} &
 \Tur{okumu\c s idiyse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okumal\i ym\i\c s} & \Tur{okumal\i yd\i} &  & & \\ \hline
  & \Tur{okuduydu} & \Tur{okuduysa} &  & \Tur{okudu idiyse}\\ \hline
 \Tur{okusaym\i\c s} & \Tur{okusayd\i} &  &  & \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{example}

If it is not associated in this way with a regular verb-base, then a
complete verb in \Tur{i-} must follow or be suffixed to a noun, pronoun,
adjective or \Tur{de\u gil}.

In a verb with two characteristics, the second being conditional, the
personal ending may \emph{precede} this.

The distinction between the present and the aorist characteristics is of
aspect.  The aorist indicates habitual action; the present, an action
ongoing or envisaged.  A third way to indicate a present tense is by
appending type-I endings or a verb in \Tur{i-} to an infinitive in the
locative case: the result indicates ongoing action only.

\begin{example}
From \Tur{yaz-} \Eng{write} we can form:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  \Tur{Romanlar yazar\i m}, \Eng{I write novels};
  \item
  \Tur{Roman yaz\i yorum}, \Eng{I am writing a novel [now, or in the
  future]};
  \item
  \Tur{Roman yazmaktay\i m}, \Eng{I am engaged in writing a novel.}
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The inferential characteristic is originally a past-participial ending.
Used in a \emph{regular} base, it indicates past action.  This action is
inferred from present appearances, or reported by somebody else---unless
the regular base is followed by \Tur{-d\#r} or a verb in \Tur{i-}, in
which case no suggestion of hearsay or inference is meant.  In
particular, the ending \Tur{-m\#\c st\#r} has the same force as
\Tur{-d\#}.  The form \Tur{imi\c s-} may not indicate past time at all,
but only hearsay.

\begin{example}
\Tur{Bar\i\c s} means \Eng{peace}; so:
\begin{itemize}
  \item
  A newspaper headline could read \Tur{Bar\i\c s geldi};
  \item
  The story under that head might say \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c stir};
  \item
  Somebody who read the story might report \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c s}, or
  possibly \Tur{Bar\i\c s gelmi\c s imi\c s}, \Eng{Peace is said to have
  come.}
\end{itemize}
\end{example}

The \tech{pluperfect} tense is usually formed with \Tur{-m\#\c s (+)
idi-}, more rarely with \Tur{-d\# (+) idi}.

The \tech{interrogative} particle is \Tur{m\#}; it always starts a new
word.  It makes a sentence into a question with a \Tur{evet/hay\i r}
(\Eng{yes/no}) answer, and it follows the word that could also be an
answer to the question.  If this word is the verb, then the \emph{base}
is what is followed by \Tur{m\#}; the personal ending, or the form of
\Tur{i-} in use, is attached to this.

Exceptions include the following.  If the personal ending is \Tur{-l@r},
then \Tur{m\#} follows this, unless \Tur{-d\#r} is also used.  The
characteristic \Tur{d\#} of the simple past is inseparable from an
attached personal ending, so if there is one, then \Tur{m\#} must follow
this.



\begin{thebibliography}{99}
\bibitem{Lewis}G. L. Lewis, \emph{Turkish Grammar}, Oxford, 1967.
\bibitem{Hengirmen}Mehmet Hengirmen, \emph{Turkish Grammar For Foreign
Students}, Ankara: Engin, 2000.
\end{thebibliography}

\end{document}
